Did the Russian State... Part IX by Nils Johann (Give to God what is God's, and to the Emperor what is the Emperor's.)

“It must be remembered that there is nothing more difficult to plan, more doubtful of success, nor more dangerous to manage than a new system. For the initiator has the enmity of all who would profit by the preservation of the old institution and merely lukewarm defenders in those who gain by the new ones.”

In their approach towards the church, our two Monarchs differ. This is due to the difference in the power-structuring of the Catholic Church, and the Eastern Orthodox Church. Both rulers of-course demonstrated devotion in public rituals, like Henry’s 'pilgrimages' or Ivan's traditional conversion to monastic life, at the end of his reign. But then there were the challenges of Realpolitik. Henry wanted a servile Church that did not challenge his authority, and he needed cash. Ivan, in part already had the Church that Henry desired, through the traditions of the Byzantine Church and the affirmation of his title as 'Czar'.

Within Orthodoxy, the State-Church was at this point already well established. The first 'Non -Roman' case is when the Serbian Kingdom gained its Church's autonomy by 1219. The ratification of the Zakonopravilo enabled the King to rule as if he were 'Czar' (Emperor), and thus also to rule the Church. The Zakonopravilo, or Νομοκανών (nomo-canon), was a revival of Roman codex tradition from the time of Justinian I (*482-†565) in combination with other church-law. It was produced by St. Sava, in the Mount Athos Monastery. The law became widely dispersed within the realm of Orthodoxy, at first as a manuscript, but printed editions from Moscow in the 1650's have also survived. At the time of Ivan it was taken to be self evident that the Monarch was the 'Pastor' of the Church. In Ivan's first letter to Kurbsky, dated fifth day of July 7072 A.M. (1564 A.D.) Ivan claims to rule in the tradition of Constantine, and, that those who oppose power like his, also oppose God who has ordained him with it. This does, however, not mean that the leaders of the Church always were unison with the Princes. Ivan would also use brute force to root out contemporary resistors within the Church. Laws from 1572 and 1582 expressively made it clear that the Crown had the right to manage Church-Land. This was most likely a consequence of the State's war-exhaustion.

In a rather rustic example of bending excuses in favor the “backwards-narrative” Sugenheim can remind us of the “moral superiority” of the 'Catholic' Church in comparison to the Eastern 'Orthodoxy'

-”Because it was nothing else than a, from servile priests without a conscience, for the moods and needs of the vices of the most heinous court of the world, masquerading under the name of Christianity.” -

And he makes this just as strong an argument as the Mongol invasion for explaining the contemporary “backwardness” of the Russian state... that the Church was a tool of the State? It is an old publication, but it stands well in line with other invented absurdities to make Russia different, as it does not industrialize at the same time as England. One can only wonder how Sugenheim would explain the contemporary British hegemony, with regards to the Crowns dominion over The Church of England?Further it opens the question if the cradle for the story of Russian backwardness does not lie in the defeat in the Crimean war (1853-56)?

For western monarchs, it had for a long time been a problem that the Church operated autonomously, (but) in alignment with 'the powers that be'. The Popes in Rome, as did other Monarchs, start to hold 'in their hand' a good bureaucratic system - large landholdings, producing an enormous wealth, and a communication-network. But they had a constant “security issue”. Henry’s poor luck with his wives, and the Pope's refusal to grant him divorce from Catalina de Aragon, who had strong family ties to the House of Habsburg , is often brought forward as a rather 'folksy', (mass-communicable parole,) excuse for the English State's break with The Church. The break was made law in the 'Statute in Restraint of Appeals' (1533). However, the English State was in a constant tense relationship with its two neighbors across the channel. Valois-France, a budding great power on the continent, next to little England... and The Habsburg, trying with some luck to manage a large part of the rest, while running their growing over-seas empire. France had a standing army and the “Most Christian” French Monarchs were expanding their influence on the Italian Peninsula. While the Habsburg, often carrying the title “Defenders of the Faith”, also were just 'next door' to The Holy See. The Holy See was far from immutable by foreign pressure. Pope Clement VII (R:1523-34) was even at time, prisoner of H.R.E. Carl V Habsburg (*1500-†58). The Church’s claim’s to ultimate universal supremacy (e.g. : Catholic), next to the statement of infallibility, made it a liability to those powers, that could not simply come by, to extort good will. (- Like all “Lutheran” rebel-states?) The Church in the North had also grown rich, as it had been the most clever 'firm' around a long time, further heightening the temptation to be acted against.

In his letters to Anne Boleyn, Henry speaks of himself as Caesar, following this he puts his imperial ambition to show, measuring the strength of his office with The Church and The Pope in Rome. Imperial is here to be understood in the sense, that the Emperor has no master, no-one to dictate to him what to do. The titillation implies that the holder is the unchallengeable 'fountain of law', giving the office-holder the universal ultimate word within their dominions.

The 'Statute in Restraint of Appeals' (1533) in combination with the '(First) Act of Supremacy' (1534) are trumped through parliament. They effected the banning of paying any dues or tides to Rome, and the right of judicial appeal to The Pope.

“...this realm of England is an empire, and so hath been accepted in the world, governed by one supreme head and king, having the dignity and royal estate of the imperial crown of the same...without restraint or provocation to any foreign princes of potentates of the world.” The latter act states directly that The Church is subject to The Crown. “...the King's Majesty justly and rightfully is and ought to be the supreme head of the Church of England...”

Thus Henry VIII achieves for England what the Rus Princes have had arranged for 'quite a while'.

My Popular Hits 2010-2011

It has been a few years since I started this blog and so much has really changed since then. My home, my family, my friends, the church, my life, my health…. so much is so different and, in many ways, new. This blog was started to help connect to family due to their encouragement and suggestions. But it has opened so much more opportunity for me. This blog still helps me keep in touch with family and I do feel less alone, but I have also made some friends from different countries and enjoy those small friendships. I have learned about other cultures and I have found deeper relationships with some family members than I have ever had before. This has been a wonderful blessing to me…

Last week, I got an email from my blogger account that congratulated me on reaching over 50,000 views. It is a stunning thought. I do not feel like I even really know one hundred people… and yet so many thousands have crossed the path of some of my thoughts. It is a feeling that is both overwhelming and a feeling of pure awe. So while I am sure I have a small group of followers and I am sure that most of the time… I can be quite boring, rambling, etc…. I thought I would take a few minutes to list the top ten posts that I have written that have been viewed over the last few years. I hope you enjoy! :)


1. Peter the Great: The Modernizer of Modern Russia (7794 views- first published 4/15/2011)








2. Ivan the Terrible: The First Czar of Russia (6025 views -first published 3/30/2011)








3. Debunking Some of the Myths of Medieval Daily Life (4121 views - first published 3/8/2011)









4. Some Snapshots of Life on Gondwana (3141 views - first published 8/18/2010)




5. Thoughts on the Document 'Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen' (1757 views - first published 9/19/2011)






6. The 'Worst Shark Attack Ever' - An Example of Human Failure and an Easy Scapegoat (1431 views - first published 6/24/2010)





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The Life and Art of Carl Heinrich Bloch (1090 views - first published 3/13/2011)






8. The Rise of Moscow after the Mongol Conquest (937 views - first published 2/21/2011)



9. Random Thoughts on Oral History, Interviews, and Technique (827 views - first published 2/23/2011



10. The Subjugation of Kievan Rus : The Tartar-Mongol Conquest and its Influences / Ramifications (827 views - first published 2/23/2011)






Is there a post that is your favorite? A post that maybe you really enjoyed but didn't see on the 'most viewed' list? Anything you are willing to share...? :)

The Reforms and Legacy of Peter the Great

Peter Alekseevich Romanov was born in June 1672 and died at the age of 53 in his beloved town of St Petersburg. Though his life was relatively short, the works of his mind, ambition and will have affected the country of Russia to its present course. Peter the Great pushed his constituents through new laws, reforms and his attempts to bring modernity to his country. This paper will discuss the reforms that were enacted during the rule of this tzar and their lasting legacies.

One of the major reforms that Peter I started with was the military. Before his time, Russia may have depended on its waterways for trade, travel and other pursuits, but the protection of those waterways could depend on a haphazard set of circumstances. In good times, these waterways and the lands of Russia itself were mostly protected by the local towns and villages themselves- the groups could have little to no knowledge of military techniques or leadership. The 'official' armies of Russia- the Streltsy or the Cossacks as examples - could be seen as professional units, but even these units were run at times by foreigners and not by native Russians. The Russian country had nothing that could be described as a navy in actual terms before Peter I. One of the major changes during this time was the creation and development of a navy. He borrowed ideas and training from other countries and created a strong Russian Navy that was officially founded on September 12, 1698. During his youth, Peter the Great had learned a lot about building ships - he had even built a few of his own- and he used this knowledge to increase security around Russian waterways, but to also conquer and claim new waterways as well. The Russian navy became a force that other monarchs would have to reckon with.

The military itself was also modernized and streamlined. The tzar recognized that he could not keep his country safe-nor conquer more lands- without a reliable and well disciplined army. One change he made was to open military academies for the teaching and training of military skills to a larger group of people. The military also became a permanent institution in the sense that it was no longer haphazard or ill-equipped. The military became a standing presence with some constituents required to serve for twenty-five years and quotas for conscripts... as well as lifelong draftees. After this was accomplished, the Czar did away or eliminated the Streltsy -with some difficulty but it was done. One change which Peter I made was to stress that the military's purpose and interests should be the interests of the state- not their own desire or even the desires of the Tsar himself. He made sure that the military was better equipped and trained in some of the styles of western military/armies and ready to face the challenges of empire building that he (Peter I) wanted. Out of all of his goals for modernizing Russia, it is thought that this one was the most important to the tsar.

The Orthodox religion didn't escape the notice of the Tsar and it underwent many changes during his reign. Previously, the Russian rulers had exerted some influence on the church but had left it mostly free of interference in its day to day operations and organization. The church was reorganized so that the powers of church leadership fell into the hands of the Czar... and not church leaders. One way this was accomplished was the creation of the Holy Synod in 1721 which replaced the power of the Patriarch of Moscow with a group of individuals mostly loyal to the tzar and not to the church. The creation of the 'Chief Procurator', a secular representative of the government who works within the church, also put the church leaders under the close supervision of the government. His government also passed a decree in 1722 that required priests of the church to disregard confidentiality in the confessional for certain matters or concerns that were governmental in nature. Tsar Peter was generally considered a 'secular' tsar and he was also known for his religious tolerance, passing laws allowing for inter-religious marriage, etc... The tsar also attempted to modernize the clergy which would result in the reduction of monks and nuns in great numbers as well as the reduction of church owned/ controlled land. Lastly, Peter issued the Spiritual Regulations that served as the bylaws for all religious activities in Russia.

There were also a few ways that Peter I attempted (and succeeded) in reforming the government. The Tsar abandoned the practice of gathering the zemsky sobor to discuss matters of special importance and he also moved the Russian 'capital' to his new city of St. Petersburg. He eliminated the Duma and replaced it with a group of individuals that acted more like a Western Senate than the former institution. And after signing a treaty in 1721 with Sweden, the Tsar was offered the title of Emperor and Russia was then known as an empire. Some reforms that were performed improved the management of government finances and control of public money. The tsar's love of education goes hand in hand with his governmental reforms as he attempted to create a meritocracy (and not an aristocracy) and to push western education onto the nobles and other constituents by importing books as well as starting institutions of learning. Tsar Peter's attempt to change the class structure by given regards for merit and service and not just for birthright did make it possible for a slight blending of some of the classes. His reforms also helped local governments to more efficiently keep order and collect taxes. Other reforms included cultural reforms that were brought about as the Czar attempted to push his people into adopting more western modes or dress, no beards (or you paid a tax), and more emphasis on conformity and obedience to the ruling power. He changed the calender in Russian to the Julian calendar in doing so changed the way most of Russia kept track of their days and holidays.

My inclination is to see Tsar Peter as a great reformer. He certainly made many large and lasting changes to many aspects to the lives of the Russian people. His changes in the military certainly made the country safer from potential foreign invaders. Collecting and developing new taxes gave the czar the money to enact not only other reforms, but to build the city of St Petersburg as well. Having any ability to blur the lines of class certainly takes work in my opinion, and making Russia into the vast and strong empire it became and survived as for so long also took quite a bit of energy, focus, ambition and endurance. However, it seems like many things didn't change all that much as there was still one man firmly in control of the country- a man who spend a great deal of time putting even more of the country and people under his control that any other ruler before him. Because he didn't share the power and in fact consolidated it even more, that must have created inefficiency, creative inhibition and problems with even making sure that the tsar's orders were being carried out correctly. I imagine that many individuals were not likely to offer suggestions or their own ideas and were likely to maybe even avoid tasks at all for their own protection... so I am quite torn by this man. I see him as doing many great and wonderful things, but I also see the side of him whose ambition and need for control caused a great deal of hardship, fear and death for many of the people he felt he was fighting so hard to elevate and improve life for. While I still see him as a great leader and I still feel that the name 'Peter the Great' can still be considered appropriate, I can also see him and his actions through the lens of knowledge that will show not only his successes, but his quirks, his difficulties and his failures. However, as this tsar was unwilling to be bogged down and focused on his failures during his lifetime, maybe we too should see and remember them, but not focus too heavily on them. His legacy was a strong country, a larger country and empire than when he was first given the crown and a country that was trading and successfully participating in European affairs and concerns. He transformed commerce and industry, the church and its activities and quite simply, changed the way that most Russians lived and how the country was viewed by the outside world. His legacy can be seen today in the culture of Russia, the buildings of his beloved St Petersburg and in almost any corner of government and culture in Russia. Whether you appreciate his reforms or not, no one can dispute that his changes and attempts to modify and modernize Russia on such a grand scale can still be felt today.... in the simple act of looking at a calendar... in worship... in the splendor of the great city that bears his name.

Peter the Great: The Modernizer of Modern Russia

Upon the death of Tsar Alexei Mihailovich Romanov in January 1676, Russia again faced a crisis of succession over the next few years. His son Feodor III ascended to the throne, but died without an heir in April 1682. This left one son from Tsar Alexei's first wife (Ivan) and one son from his second wife (Peter) with potential for the rise to the throne and the matriarchal relatives of each boy to continue the power struggle over the crown. In a nutshell, Ivan was considered weak, possibly mentally retarded and unfit for the throne, but was the oldest male (14 years old) and heir from the first wife. Peter was the best match physically and mentally, but was from the second wife and was younger (10 years old). So an agreement was reached between the two families that both Ivan and Peter would rule with an older sister Sophia as acting regent (she was Ivan's full sister from Tsar Alexei's first wife.) During the next few years, Sophia tried to gain more power but when Peter was seventeen years old, the crisis ended, leaving Peter I as tsar and Sophia in a convent. His brother Ivan was still considered co-tzar and kept his title, but he never participated in government for the rest of his life. This paper will discuss the life and achievements of Tsar Peter I.

Peter was born on June 9, 1672 to Tsar Alexei and his second wife Nataliya Naryshkina. It was at 5:00 AM that the bell known to those who lived in Moscow as 'Great Ivan' began to toll proclaiming the birth of Peter- the first child of this union... and while the Tsar celebrated in the Kremlin, other areas of the country including the Solovetsky Monastery were in open defiance of the tsar and his new religious innovations. There is little known about his first three years of life, but it was in Peter's third year of life that his father died and his half brother Fyodor was named czar. Feodor III was frail, pious and loved learning... in short, he left the running of his government to his relatives. At the age of five, Peter was given a tutor who taught him to read from the Bible, sing, some very basic math, and some grammar and spelling- although his handwriting, grammar, and spelling remained erratic throughout his life. Showing an aptitude for 'war games', Peter also passed his days with boys of all classes organizing 'regiments' for mock battles. This would teach him many lessons of a positive nature, but also a few negatives - sometimes people died in these 'sham' battles as real military equipment and ammunition was used in them and in one of these battles at least 24 young men were killed and it was quoted in one source that one five pound rocket “took of the head of a boyar.” It was also during this time that the tsar displayed a great willingness to mix with and work with people of all classes- a principle that seemed to guide Peter throughout his life was that advancement for anyone in any field should be based on merit and not on rank or origin... which helped to promote many people of the lower classes.

Upon the death of Tsar Fyodor in 1682, Peter was proclaimed Tsar (at the age of ten years) and then later that same year after an uprising of the Streltsy and a compromise between the squabbles of the two matriarchal families, Peter was declared co- czar with his brother Ivan. His first public appearance as Tsar was at Fyodor's funeral which caused some scandal when he left half way through the service. In his youth, Peter avoided spending time in the Kremlin and he spent a lot of time in the German Quarter of Moscow- he preferred the company of foreign individuals with whom he was able to learn different occupations including stone-masonry, carpentry, horse shoeing, and how to pull teeth. He was well known for his curiosity and combined with Peter's apparently endless energy and enthusiasm for learning, the future czar learned many different tasks/occupations including those of foreign origin. It is not hard to understand his lack of comfortable feelings in the Kremlin with the political intrigue throughout his childhood as well as the violence and deaths of the Streltsy riots could certainly have formed negative impressions in a young child's mind that would have lasted his whole life. The government was run by his half sister Sophia until he was seventeen years old. (By the age of sixteen, the tsar had been able to do almost whatever he pleased and only attended court ceremony or special church services when his mother requested it of him. To please his mother whom he genuinely loved, Peter was married to Eudoxia Lopukhin in 1689- this was an unhappy marriage- clearly political in nature- and a decade later Peter had her sent to a nunnery.)

At seventeen, Sophia's concern about her security as regent (and autocrat as she had started using and signing her name with that title) and possible plots against Peter in an attempt to keep Sophia on the throne came to a head as both Sophia and Peter began to have conflicts in how they wanted the country to be run. With a possible plot of death for himself and his family hanging over his head, Peter fled to the Trinity Monastery where he stayed safe and was able to muster up his supporters - one source suggests St. Sergius monastery. Having enough supporters, including the Patriarch of the Russian orthodox church, Peter was able to force Sophia into confinement in the Novodevichii Convent and removed her most loyal supporters from high governmental positions. Even then, Peter allowed his mother and other relatives (including his uncle Leo Naryshkin) to rule until he was 22 years old. For the years between the age of seventeen and twenty two, the tsar used the time to travel and with a group of companions he traveled through the Swedish port of Riga, spent some time in Holland, then England as well as Austria- during the tours Peter would try to go incognito and went by the name of Peter Mikhailov which was not very successful because of the Tsar's unusual physical appearance and strength. This tour of continuous travel took about five years and he learned many talents and new tasks including new lifestyles, new ideas and a thorough revulsion and rejection of the 'backward and primitive elements' in Russia. His ambition was to bring the country of Russia into the modern era or as he was quoted- 'to sever the people from their former Asiatic customs and instruct them how all Christian peoples in Europe comport themselves.'

When his mother died, Tsar Peter took up the reins of his autocracy. Peter was quoted as writing in a textbook: “For learning is good and fundamental, and as it were the root, the seed, and first principle of all that is good and useful in church and state.” He had already built a ship on his own and soon he began to modernize the army and to create the navy. These modernizations were bitterly resented by the Streltsy and the Streltsy were to 'revolt' several times during his reign -they were tortured, killed and disbanded early in his reign. He was also sorry and grieved at the death of his brother and co-tzar in February 1696, but continued with running the country in very short order... and cared for Ivan's window and children throughout the rest of his life. Peter was considered a very 'secular' tsar and his court was filled with 'drink and debauchery'- his belief that the church had it's place and that place was to teach obedience was very much part of his overall dealings with the Orthodox church. (When once asked about his lifestyle, Peter I was known to have said that if he were not the ruler of Russia, he would want to be an English admiral... which says something about the lifestyle of an English admiral.) During his reign Peter fought a war with Turkey, Sweden, Estonia, Livonia and had some skirmishes with Poland as well as some of his own subjects (between the Cossacks and the Streltsy and other rebellions). He reorganized the military and emphasized that the military's interests should be in the interests of the state... and not his (the Tsar's) own needs- when he was working on his reorganization of the military, he crossed off the lines “the interests of his Tsarist majesty” as the object of military usefulness and devotion and substituted the words 'the interests of the state.' He also can be quoted from his address to the troops immediately preceding the battle of Poltava: 'Let the Russian host know that that hour has come to place the fortunes of our entire Fatherland in their hands; either to perish utterly or for Russia to be reborn in a better condition. And let them not think that they were armed and put forth for Peter, but for the state entrusted to Peter, for their kin, for the Russian people....' He also met Catherine Skavronsky in 1702 who was later to become his second wife on November 8, 1707 in a private ceremony- she had been Tsar Peter's mistress for a few years already and also had married her in a official and formal ceremony later on. His son from his first marriage (Alexei) was not considered a success and eventually the disagreements between the Tsar and his son ended with the death of Alexei of a seizure- there is no evidence that Alexei died at his father's hand although Alexei had already been sentenced to death presumably for treason against his father. In 1721, after the Treaty of Nystad was signed with Sweden, Peter I was offered the titles of “Emperor”, “Great”, and “Father of the Fatherland” by the state chancellor Count Gabriel Golovkin and in the name of the senate... and this honor was accepted by the Tsar. (One source suggests that these titles were the initiative of Bishop Thephan Prokopovich.)

One of Tsar Peter's great achievements was the building of the city of St Petersburg- named after his patron saint. The site was chosen on May 27, 1703 by the tsar and construction began almost immediately. (The site is located at the mouth of the Neva River where the river enters the Gulf of Finland.) The chosen site was, for all intents and purposes, impractical as it was described as a swamp, marshy, and prone to flooding. However, this was the site chosen and a fortress was built without delay for the towns protection. Peter then commenced to reconquer the land around it to keep the town safe as well. One important point that must be noted is that the building of St Petersburg was a great drain in resources- both physical and human. Some historians have estimated that over half a million people lost their lives in the building of the city due to poor living and working conditions as well as the diseases that come with working the marshy areas such as fevers and malaria. The financial burdens of the extra taxation fell especially hard on the peasantry and laws set to push construction along also fell hard on the most impoverished. The tsar and his family moved to St Petersburg in 1710 and it was designated as the capital of Russia in 1712.

There were many changes that happened during the reign of Peter the Great. The largest change was that the tsar challenged custom and in some ways began a cultural revolution as well as 'modernization'- in the past the tzars rarely interfered in the private lives of the constituency and if they did it was usually to reinforce customs and traditions. Another change was the firm reorganization that Peter I performed with the orthodox church which concentration all the powers of church leadership into his hands... and not those of the church- this included the creation of the Holy Synod and the decree of 1722 which required that priests disregard confidentiality in the confessional for certain government matters or concerns. Another religious change was that Peter I was fairly tolerant of religious differences; he even passed a law allowing Orthodox Christians to marry Western Christians. Another occurrence was in the calling of the zemsky sobor- these gatherings of the different class groups to discuss matters of special importance had already started to dwindle over time, but Tsar Peter abandoned the practice. He insisted on the boyars forgoing beards and wearing more Western attire and to encourage other constituents a beard tax was instituted. (One quote about this process was written by John Perry: 'Nothing but the absolute authority of the Tzar could ever have prevailed with the Russes to have parted with their beards.') He changed the military by incorporating new styles, making sure that the armies were better equipped and instituting lifelong draftees. He also created and developed a Russian Navy. He made Russia into an empire and gave Russia its first empress in his second wife Catherine. Russia under his tutelage 'invaded' Europe- diplomatically and commercially- making Russia a power to be reckoned with . The Tsar's obsessive pursuit of western knowledge led to an expansion of books in Russia- before 1700, there were around 500 books that were mostly devotional and religious works... by 1725, there were over 1300 books and most were on secular subjects. Another outcome that is steeped in irony was that in his attempts to create freedom, progress and to improve the life of his people, he further suppressed the serfs and some of his ambitions led more to slavery and oppression for them and in a word- despotism. Also, the Tsar was able to foster more trade with other nations by building more canals, roads and bridges which included the canals that completed the water passage from the Baltic sea to the Caspian sea. Lastly, the creation of the Table of Ranks allowed the Tsar to 'force' education of the noble classes and allowed people from all classes of life the option to become a noble or to change their class... it was even possible to make that hereditary. Hard work and intelligence, not birth became the key.

Peter was a man of extraordinary physical attributes. He was almost seven feet tall and quite powerful and energetic... and not afraid of physical labor. Few individuals could keep up with the occupations and energy level of the tsar. The Bishop of Burnet stated that “the providence of God... has raised up such a furious man to so absolute authority over so great a part of the world”. One source states: 'He was one of his country’s greatest statesmen, organizers, and reformers.' Peter was determined and didn’t give up readily- for example, after learning of a disastrous defeat by Sweden, the tsar remarked: 'I know very well, the Swedes will for some time beat us, but at length, we may learn to beat them.' It should also be noted that while the wars fought by Peter I were very destructive, Tsar Peter didn't see war as an end in itself and preferred to have less destruction and death. In one instance, the tsar berated a Swedish commander for his 'stubborn' defiance that had caused extra bloodshed and destruction. He was also known to be generous in victory and one example was the victory by Russia against Sweden on July 8th, 1709. Czar Peter invited the captured officers to banquet on the battlefield and even offered them a toast: ' Our teachers in the art of war'... the Swedish General Rehnskold is then said to have replied 'It is well that you have paid us for our lesson'.

He had a few difficult or negative traits that were easily seen in some situations. His savage temper and belief in his absolute power made it easy for him to overreact.... and over react he did in so many instances. One example of this would be at a banquet held soon after his return to Russia from Europe. Before a large group of people, he accused a man of selling commissions in the army and attacked him with a sword. A few people were injured, but a few minutes later Peter was cheerful and acted as if nothing had happened. During a banquet his lieutenant Mishokov told the tsar that his son Alexei was 'an idiot and [he] will undo all your [Peter's] work'- the Tsar then gave the lieutenant a blow to his head (even though the tsar himself was very much concerned about that as well.) Peter always acted as the autocrat and it was not unheard of for him to beat his high officials with a stick... to which even his closest friend was not ignored. Peter has been described as a man who could use 'bestial cruelty' to a man of selfless devotion. One source suggests that the 'very magnitude of his ambition' might have been Peter the Great's largest flaw as his ambition allowed him to not see the present costs and in the end it was the Russian people who paid the costs for his ambition... even though his ambition was to help them rise above all.

If the tsar did have one fault that contributed to his death, it was that he would not rest. In the summer of 1724 his health took a turn for the worse and Peter found if necessary to have an operation on his bladder. He continued to have difficulties and on January 27, 1725 an infection forced him to be bedridden and he was never able to leave it. In February of 1725, Peter I died at the age of 53 in St Petersburg and is believed to have died of pneumonia with his wife Catherine at his side. (other sources suggest complications of his urinary ailment.) Some of his former subjects enjoyed repeating the caption of a famous cartoon that came out after the tzar’s death: “The Mice Bury the Cat.”... in a metaphor of Peter I and his life and ambition. There is still discussion between historians about the elements of his reign and what positive and negative aspects his decisions left behind. If nothing else, Peter the great has cemented himself in our memories as a ruler that was almost 'larger than life' with an ambition and energy to match it.

The Cultural and Religious Life of Russia: 1533-1689

Religion has held an important role in the culture and politics of Russia since the early days of Kievan Rus. The earliest religious thought and practice in Russia was paganism which was quite popular with most of the population. The beginnings of Christianity in Russia are attributed to the reign of Vladimir I in 988 AD. This ruler, after looking at a few different religions, chose orthodox Christianity as his preferred 'national' religion and then encouraged and 'invited' the nobles and other citizens to join. In time, orthodox Christianity took firm hold and the spirits/ earth deities of paganism were slowly put aside. And with the support of the Russian rulers as well as the immersion of the religious beliefs and behaviors into Russian culture, it has become a little difficult sometimes to see the threads of where religion is separate from other parts of the Russian constituent's life as it had been in the past. By the reign of Ivan IV, Orthodox Christianity was the only major religion in the Russian state and territories. This paper will discuss the role that religion played in the lives of the Russian people between the years of 1533-1689 and how Western religion tried to influence the Russian orthodox religion.

One important factor that must be considered when discussing Russian religion during this time frame is the idea that emphasis was put on Moscow as the center of the 'true' Christian civilization. The fall of the Byzantine empire to the Ottomans gave Russia the unexpected opportunity to become a potential leader of the world wide orthodox community. This opportunity was taken advantage of in different ways. In 1589 and shortly after the death of Ivan IV, the orthodox church in Russia elevated its 'metropolitan'* to the title of 'patriarch' which helped to separate the Byzantine church from the Russian church... and in Russian eyes and most practical matters, the Patriarch’s word and opinion was now the most important of all the 'heads' of the differing orthodox churches. By 1533, the influence of the orthodox church... or at least monasticism was starting to wane and the government as well as the church began to hold more sway over the population. And time gave the government more ability to strengthen its powers over the church. In 1649, the law code passed by Tsar Alexei forbid sermons to be insulting to the upper classes and removed some church lands from the church and placed them in governmental control- this action was not considered acceptable to all church nobility and some members of the upper church nobility refused to sign the law code due to the perceived 'semi-secularization' of the church. By 1686, the Russian orthodox church (or the Church of the Third Rome) dominated all orthodoxy in Northern Europe. Reforms and schism within the church itself changed the way that the church was viewed by much of the population... as well as how the ritualistic behaviors of the church were performed.

Another important factor that should be discussed when examining the religion and culture of Russia during this time was the growth of foreign influences- especially in the seventeenth century. The pope of the Roman Catholic Church thought of members of the Byzantine or Orthodox church as heretics or schismatics – and had since the 'schism' of 1054. So it was not unheard of for the pope to allow or even advocate 'crusades' against the infidels- which could and would include the Orthodox Christians. This was only one factor in the many wars that graced Russian soil, but one important reason nonetheless. (In fact, around 1240 when the Mongols were invading Russian territory, Prince Daniel of Galicia (Romanovych) acknowledged the Roman church and accepted a 'papal' crown in an attempt to get help from other Roman Catholics with men and resources to fight the Mongols. His hope was in vain and no help from the other Christian church was forthcoming. Another example would be in the case of 'Pseudo' Dmitri I who was supported by the Catholic Church and the Jesuits as he had promised to become a Catholic and 'roman-ize' Russia if successful in his quest for the tzardom.) Between the years of 1533-1689, Russia fought in wars with Poland, Sweden, Denmark, Turkey, and Lithuania... as well as uprisings of the native population. Between the wars, natural disasters and other conflicts as well as the church schism, foreign influences were able to have more opportunities to influence and change the Russian culture that they collided with.

It must be noted that the Russian population and culture did have a mistrust and suspicion of foreign individuals, their religions and their unknown cultures. One prominent Scottish officer stationed in Russia is quoted as saying: 'strangers being looked upon by the best sort as scarcely Christians, and by the plebeians as mere pagans.' Another quote that furthered the sense of Russia’s superiority when it came to religion and the culture of other countries can be found in the quote by the Constantinople Patriarch’s declaration to Tsar Feodor: 'Your great Russian Tsardom, the third Rome, surpasses all in piety; you alone in all the universe are referred to as the Christian Tsar.” To try and limit influence of Westerners, their religions and their ideas, Tsar Alexei attempted to isolate 'non-orthodox foreigners' in Moscow by creating a separate place in the town for them to live in 1652- which later became known as the German Quarter. However, as the government grew stronger and the influence of the church on the population lessened, the defenses that had been built to try and protect the population from Western influences were weakened as well. Part of the 'schism' in the church itself appears to be based on what powers belongs to the church and which powers were the Tsars... a possible influence of Western spiritual thought as the church felt it should have control over all spiritual decisions and authority while the state very much disagreed.

Religion was very much an important part of the lives of all those living in the country of Russia during this time. The church was still an influencing force in the lives of the population as the leaders tried to curb drinking or drunkenness, pagan practices as well as perceived inappropriate entertainment, activities, and disrespect to the church. It seems a safe guess that the schism in the church would have also been very much on the mind of late sixteenth century constituents as laws were passed, people tortured or killed themselves to support their faith, and the resistance (or insistence) to church reforms became widespread. (One source suggests that millions of clergy and laity refused to accept the reformed Russian liturgy.) Many holidays and popular activities were based on religious holidays or celebrations. As serfdom became settled law, the church encouraged the upper classes to treat the serfs with generosity and compassion. Both the church and the Russian government concentrated heavily on the teaching of obedience and the church was also responsible for much of the education that was performed during these years for the upper classes, etc... Religion also heavily influenced art, architecture as well as literature.

Western religion influenced the Russian orthodox religion in a few ways. Western influences changed the way that Russians looks at the arts are well as architecture. Architecture and suburbs began to take on a more 'western look' in the late seventeenth century which can be seen in the ornate window decorations, mirrors and imported goods of the period. Theater was also brought to Russia and was even viewed by the czar... even though the orthodox church didn't approve of drama. Secular artists became more prominent and over time were no longer the minority when compared to numbers of icon painters. One of Tsar Alexei's chief advisers started a monastery with a free school to teach Latin, Greek, and philosophy. It must be noted that even with western influences, the orthodox church was able to dominate intellectual life even during the time of the European Renaissance and the Reformation.

In conclusion, the lives of Russians in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were very much affected by not only the Orthodox religion which permeated their culture and society, but also by the gradual influences that came from Europe and other surrounding countries. Peter I, the tzar known as the first Westernizer and modernizing czar, helped to open Russia to reforms that, unlike his predecessors, were openly encouraged to flourish and grow.... changing Russia and its culture in many ways that can still be felt today.


* A metropolitan is the name for a leader in the Orthodox church. Unlike Rome, the various eastern churches were united in faith, but not controlled by one man. A patriarch could be seen as the spiritual ruler for that area or that section of the church, whereas a metropolitan was subservient to the ruler and/or patriarch of the Byzantine church. By creating a patriarch in Russia, the church's authority was placed more squarely in the hands of Russians and not foreigners... even if they were 'faithful' foreigners. :)

The First Romanov Czars: Michael and Alexei (1613-1676)

The accession of Mikhail Romanov to the Russian throne in February 1613 marked the end of the 'Time of Troubles' for the Russia country. A few ideas survived this time stronger and intact which was to affect the Russian country politically for centuries to come. The idea that only a strong monarch/tzar could keep the country from chaos was strong and seemed to many to be the only alternative to ongoing chaos. One idea was that the only stability that had been available was the Orthodox church and that was the only guarantee and unifying factor in Russia without a Tsar. There was also the idea that the person who should be in charge needed to be of the 'people' and understand the hardships that they had faced... and were facing. Last was the realization that the Tsar needed the boyar class and could not have authority without them- they would have to work together or get nowhere but trouble, death and chaos for all. The person also needed to be acceptable to the majority if not all Cossack groups as well as the boyar class. Finding someone on the Rurik hereditary line that hadn't been involved in the intrigue and choosing sides in the long civil war was that much harder. So it comes as almost no surprise that the chosen individual was young, had the appropriate heredity, and had very little political involvement over the last fifteen years. A quote from a source that caused me to laugh- “The choice (for czar) fell upon a boy, whose name might have wrung a sigh from the ghost of Boris Godunov: Michael Romanov.” I think the author was right! This paper will discuss the reigns of Tsar Mikhail I and his son Alexei I of Russia. It will discuss their goals and achievements and help us continue on our enlightening path of learning Russian history.

Mikhail Fyodorovich Romanov was born on July 12, 1596 to Feodor Nikitich Romanov and Kseniya Shestova in Moscow, Russia. Very little else is known about his childhood. It is known that both of his parents were forced by Boris Godunov to enter service in the church to keep them out of sight/mind for the 'succession'. Before taking vows and being known as Patriarch Filaret, Feodor Romanov had been a distinguished soldier, a man of diplomacy and had been the popular candidate for the throne when Feodor I passed away and Boris Godunov took over. The young Michael probably grew up in a convent with his mother at Tolvuysiy pogost and then later moved with her to Kostroma. In February 1613, he was the chosen and elected czar.... but the next step was for the new czar to be found. And found he was at his mother's side at the Ipatiev Monastery near Kostroma on March 24th. (On a side note, there is a legend about a man named Ivan Susanin who was tortured to hide the whereabouts of the young Michael Romanov and because of his faithfulness and his silence his ancestors were given one half of Derevischi village by Tsar Mikhail.... or he led a Polish army group sent to capture the czar astray and they were never heard from again. There is some debate about this.) Many sources suggest that Mikhail and his mother were not accepting at first of his new 'elevation'- only after much discussion did Michael accept the position of Czar. He approached Moscow on May 2,1613 and several weeks later he attended his coronation in the Assumption/Dormition Cathedral. He married Maria Vladimirovna Dolgorukova in 1624 and when she died four months after their marriage, Michael married Eudoxia Streshneva. Together, they produced ten children including the next Czar Alexis.

The first priority of the new Tsar in 1614 was to restore order and rid the country of the 'foreign occupators'. One source suggests that Tsar Micheal’s main goal was actually twofold- to rid Russia of the large foreign armies and put to rest the conflicts with Poland and Russians as well as deal with his country's financial problems to help solidify Michael's own position. Due to his age, he ruled closely with close consultation with the Boyar Duma and the Assembly of the Land for the first few years... and well as help by his mother's relatives that took control of governmental affairs until the return of Mikhail's father. Patriarch Filaret returned to Moscow in June of 1619 and took up the reigns of political affairs, accepting the title of Great Sovereign and ruling until his death in 1933. However, before his father's return Mikhail had many accomplishments. He had inherited a bankrupt country and he immediately borrowed money to pay the army and raised taxes. Michael was able to put down an uprising of an pretender (false Dmitri III) and his promoters which helped to cement his rule. After the necessary isolation of Russia during the civil wars of the 'Troubles', Tsar Michael looked to England and to its monarch James I for an alliance that could protect Russia from further problems with Poland- there was precedent for good relations with England as relations between the Queen of England (Elizabeth I) and Russian monarchs Ivan IV and Boris Godunov were mostly amiable. This step, along with the taxes and rebuilding the army ended parts of the Polish occupation of Russia and helped control the Swedish threat. Tsar Mikhail signed the Treaty of Stolbovo in 1617 and the Treaty of Deulino in `1618. The alliance with England was successful in its ambitions and both parties (the Tsar of Russia and the King of England) gained many of the priorities and securities that they wanted in their high stakes game of 'risk'. Throughout the last years of his rule, the czar's concentration was on colonization and fort-building in the south and in Siberia- as well as the reformation of the structure of local governments to increase the authority of the central administration. Tsar Mikhail Romanov ruled until his natural death of illness on July 12, 1645 after naming his 16 year old son Alexei as his designated heir.

Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov was born on March 19, 1629, to Tsar Mikhail and his second wife, Eudoxia Streshneva. Alexis was brought up by various wet nurses until the age of five and then his education was entrusted to two boyars names Boris Morozov and Basil Streshnev. Even though he was handed the throne at the same age as his father, he had been able to be better prepared for the challenge. He was sixteen years of age when his father died on July 13, 1645 and his coronation was held on September 28, 1645. In Russian, his nickname was 'tishaishii' which means 'most quiet one' and he was known to be a very devout and religious man. (The word 'tishaishii' can also mean 'the most meek.) Tsar Alexei relied heavily on his two tutors for advice during the early parts of his reign, but firmly stood on his own during much of his reign. He married Maria Ilynichna Miloslavskaya in January 1648 and she gave birth to thirteen children in their twenty-one years of marriage... and died a few weeks after the last childbirth. It was said that Tsar Alexei was very grief-stricken at her death, however, he did later marry again; a Nataliya Kyrillovna Naryshkina and after their marriage in February 1671, she bore him three children... including Peter, who would later be known as one of the greatest Russian rulers in history.

No one can really honestly suggest that the time frame during the rule of Tsar Alexei was not tumultuous. Events happening all over the globe confirm that statement. But Russia itself was part of and participated in some of the difficulties. In Russia during his reign, Tsar Alexis faced numerous town rebellions including defeating the Cossack group led by Stenka Razin, fought and was fairly successful territory-wise in the Russo-Swedish war of 1656, a thirteen year war with Poland which was quite successful territory-wise, as well as a permanent schism in the Orthodox church. According to the introduction to his own book on falconry, Alexis is quoted as saying that "everything must be done with good order, discipline, and exact arrangement.” One source mentions that this quote helps explain the tzar’s emphasis on centralization, obedience, and conformity. He believed that nothing could be secure or strengthened unless great care, strong consistency and hands on strong authority was used. This was not a whim that he expected others to follow alone- Tsar Alexis required the same behavior in almost all instances from himself. Alexei is also quoted as coining the phrase “a time for work, an hour for play” which is still a popular saying in Russia.

He was considered one of the most educated men of his time and he himself wrote and edited many of the important decrees and documents of his time for Russia. He was the first czar to sign laws on his own authority and to permit realistic portraits of himself as well as to actually receive personal communications as a 'person' and not as a leader. Tsar Alexei also established an international postal system to improve communication with other states in Europe. He was described in the memoirs of Lizek as a “Tsar [that] is gifted with unusual talents, has fine qualities and rare virtues... subjects love him so much and revere him.” A monument to Czar Alexei is scheduled to be completed in the city of Penza in 2013 which is the city's 350th anniversary- this city is significant as it was built on Czar Alexei orders to bolster one of the Russian empire's borders.

Tsar Alexei was a man who seems to have a broad vision and unlike some of his predecessors, didn't seem to enjoy the punishments that he felt 'forced' to order. His actions increased the territory of Russia and also helped cement the autocracy for his successors... giving them more power than he had come to the throne with. When he died, he left a fairly stable country ready to accept some new western ideas and a lasting legacy. His son Peter I would continue and build on his father's ideals and legacy creating a legend for himself and a country that would continue to last until this very day.... even if in a smaller form.

The 'Time of Troubles': The Last of the Rurik Rulers, Civil War, and the Beginnings of the Romanov Dynasty

Upon the death of Ivan IV, his son Fedor took the throne. Fedor ruled from the years 1584-1598 although it must be said that Fedor did not truly weld the power behind the throne... even if he was sitting in it. And upon his death, Russia was to have about 15 years of dynastic strife as well as social and national struggles. This period of time is known to historians by the name 'The Time of Troubles'. This paper will attempt to discuss three particular subjects. What was the 'Time of Troubles' and its significance. What were the particular struggles of the time- dynastically, socially, and nationally... and how did these struggles overlap or remain separate from each other? Lastly, what part did the Cossacks play in all of these struggles, what role did they have in Russian history, and what eventually brought the country of Russia into national chaos during this time.

While the 'Times of Troubles' didn't officially begin until the year of 1598, it's path was born in the last years of the reign of Ivan IV. The last years of his reign were filled with the consequences of his grief, paranoia, his temper and mental illness. During that time frame, Russia began to have many difficulties. The Livonian War had depleted the state of many resources, both financial and human. Ivan's oprichnina, while attempting to snuff out treason, succeeded in terrorizing the country and killing thousands of innocent people of all classes. Both the war and the 'terror squad' helped to spread destabilization and impoverishment around the country and the rising demands on the peasant class caused many peasants to flee from the oppressive demands placed against them by migrating south. Ivan, in a fit of temper killed his principle heir to the throne and then, in his own grief, died soon after. This left the throne to the next oldest son Fedor- who has been described by many sources as unfit, weak-witted, etc... Another legacy from Ivan IV to his son was the threat to Russian security by the Crimean Tartars, Poland, and Sweden.

Fedor Ivanovich was born in Moscow on May 31, 1557 to Ivan IV and Anastasia Romanovna. He was often referred to as Fedor 'the Bell-ringer' because of his frequent attendance at church services, his strong faith and his inclination to travel throughout the land and ring the bells in the churches. He was married to Irina (Alexandra) Feodorovna Godunova in 1580 and on May 31, 1584, (after the death of his father) Fedor was crowned Tzar and Autocrat of all Russia at Assumption Cathedral. Ivan IV, knowing that Fedor did have 'problems' such as mental retardation arraigned in his will for Fedor to have two guardians to act as regents for him. These two guardians became the real power behind the throne and one of them was Boris Godunov. Boris Godunov was the brother of Fedor's wife and had found great favor with Fedor's father. Czar Fedor spent much of his waking hours in monotonous prayer far removed from the understanding of the Russian state reality. During his reign, the Church of Muscovy gained a special status of Patriarchate of Moscow- a title that gave the assumption of imperial status to the church and brought the religious rule and political rule of Russia even closer. So, as the power behind the throne, Boris Godunov 'ruled' until the 1598.

In 1598 Fedor died without an obvious heir, ending the Rubik Dynasty. He was buried at the Archangel Cathedral in Kremlin. During his reign, he did not produce an heir (and did not appoint one) and Ivan's last son Dmitry had been murdered/killed- either his throat was slit or he was stabbed in the throat. (It must be noted that some suspicion was placed on Boris Godunov in this death... even though the official investigators appointed by Godunov reported that Dmitri had been playing with a knife when he had suffered an epileptic seizure and then died.) After the death of Feodor, Boris was formally 'elected' to the position of Tzar on February 17, 1598 by a council of about 600 deputies drawn from the roles of upper clergy, the boyar duma, and representatives of the service nobility. Some comments from England's ambassador who was sent to the Court of Fedor show some of the cynicism and trouble of the time. Sir Giles Fletcher is quoted as saying: “The state and form of government is plain tyrannical... You shall seldom see a Ruse a traveler, except he be with some Ambassador... They are kept from traveling, so they may learn nothing nor see the fashions of other countries...It may be doubted whither is greater- the cruelty or the intemperancy that is used in this country.” Boris was to rule/reign as Tzar until his death after a lengthy illness and/or stroke in April 1605.

The easiest way to describe what the Cossacks were is to describe them as groups of lawless frontiersman or 'migrant workers'. The ranks of these groups were filled with peasants, runaway slaves, criminals, Tartars, and sometimes even a nobleman who was embittered towards the Autocrat and/or the establishment. The Cossacks survived mostly by hunting, fishing, farming... and or course piracy/brigandage. The Cossacks were also independent of loyalties to others other than themselves and were a very democratic institution; they elected their own leaders by popular vote- called hetmans or atamans. These groups had started to develop around the time of Ivan IV in the lands that had recently been conquered back from the Tartar-Mongols. (There is some thought/ sources that suggest groups of cossacks existed earlier than this time frame.) These groups gained some power and influence (or at the least were certainly not persecuted) under the reign of Ivan IV and both the czar and the these groups sometimes worked together for their common good... with Ivan using the cossacks sometimes as auxiliaries to his army, sometimes as paid members of the oprichnina, etc... Ivan IV was also quoted in 1549 in a response to a request of the Turkish Sultan to control the cossacks- 'The Cossacks of the Don are not my subjects, and they go to war or live in peace without my knowledge.' It must be stressed however, that while in some instances the Cossacks were quite willing to have an amiable relationship with the government or the czar, in others they were more than happy to defy the laws/czar- they had no loyalty or ties to anyone but to their own group members. The cossacks were known for their horsemanship and they managed to keep most of their autonomy until Russia expanded in the 17th and 18th centuries.

The role that the Cossacks played in the development of the history of Russia was varied. One group of Cossacks that were previously mentioned (the Don Cossacks) allied themselves with the Tsars and together systematically conquered and colonized lands to secure the borders of the Volga and all of Siberia. In one example, the Cossacks who lived in the southern frontier took advantage of a foreign war between Turkey and Persia and seized the fortress of Azov in 1637- when they were unable to defend it over a long period of time, communication was made with the Tzar and the fort was abandoned on the tzar’s instructions. In some areas, the differing groups of cossacks created a buffer from invasion from other countries along the Russian borders. Members of Cossack groups also served as guides for many expeditions that were arraigned by civil or government/military groups such as surveyors, traders, explorers, etc... Cossack groups also were involved in political uprisings in Russia and were military supporters of different pretenders to the Russian throne during the Time of Troubles- in fact, the main force supporting one pretender (Pseudo Dmitri I) was the Cossacks.

In 1598, Boris Godunov was elected czar and the 'Time of Troubles' officially began. For the next eight years, there was a dynastic struggle. During this time frame, the country had widespread discontent, invasions from two different countries and various tzars of dubious validity. Boris Godunov was elected Tsar by the Assembly of the Land, but Boris had troubles from the beginning with the boyar class- many refused to grant him unlimited authority because Godunov had no hereditary claim to the throne. However, none of the boyar class could unite with each other around an alternative candidate. After Godunov was crowned, he immediately set out to make sure he didn't have problems with popular rivals; Romanov relatives were banished or sent to monasteries and other boyars were simply purged. During the first few years of his reign, Boris Godunov was quite popular and he did his best to bring about educational and social reforms, including importing foreign teachers, sending young Russians abroad to be educated and even allowed for the building of some protestant churches. However, his reign and the years after his death were filled with power struggles. Godunov was quite paranoid over his position of power and assumed (quite rightly) that others would try to take it from him. He found that his reign was marked not only by national disasters such as severe famine that killed as much as 1/3 of the population, but also invasions from both Sweden and Poland. Rumors began to circulate that the late prince Dmitri was not actually dead and the final years of Godunov's reign were spent fighting not only the other social problems of plague and famine, but the pretender Pseudo Dmitri. After the death of Boris Godunov in April 1605, the dynastic chaos and civil war began in earnest. Feodor II (the son of Boris Godunov was crowned Tsar... and murdered three weeks later. The next in charge was False Dmitri I was then crowned, but reigned only a year before conspiracies against him by a rurikid prince Vasily Shuisky who then murdered the False Dmitri and seized power. Soon after this power grab, a new conspiracy grew up around another imposter calling himself 'Dmitri' entered the fray... and False Dmitri II was born. At this time a second occupation from Poland-Lithuania began after an invasion. And, another pretender Tsarevich Peter, arrived on the scene and had to be dealt with as well. All of the above mentioned pretenders had large armies-either from foreign forces who were willing to help, Cossacks, disgruntled boyars... and some mixtures of all of the above. In all, about twelve pretenders vied for the Russian throne and brought the chaos of civil war with them during their struggle as well as the forces of foreign powers.

The struggles for independence from foreign occupation and the long civil war brought about national chaos to Russia. No area of Russia was unmolested by occupying forces or civil war, natural disasters such as plague and famine, and the struggles of the nearly dozen different pretenders to the throne were felt across all areas of Russia. When Tsar Vasily was forced to abdicate his throne by Filaret Romanov, Russia was ruled by a council of seven boyars for three years until the year 1613 when the council selected Mikhail Romanov as Tsar. This was possible because the boyar finally were able to work together for compromise, the Cossacks supported the candidate, and Mikhail Romanov was not seen as 'power grabbing' like some of the other candidates were. He ruled from February 1613 to 1645, bringing the country of Russia back to stability- expelling the Poles/Swedes from Moscow and the country, bringing Russia back to economic recovery/stability and the beginning of three centuries of Romanov rule.