Peter the Great: The Modernizer of Modern Russia

Upon the death of Tsar Alexei Mihailovich Romanov in January 1676, Russia again faced a crisis of succession over the next few years. His son Feodor III ascended to the throne, but died without an heir in April 1682. This left one son from Tsar Alexei's first wife (Ivan) and one son from his second wife (Peter) with potential for the rise to the throne and the matriarchal relatives of each boy to continue the power struggle over the crown. In a nutshell, Ivan was considered weak, possibly mentally retarded and unfit for the throne, but was the oldest male (14 years old) and heir from the first wife. Peter was the best match physically and mentally, but was from the second wife and was younger (10 years old). So an agreement was reached between the two families that both Ivan and Peter would rule with an older sister Sophia as acting regent (she was Ivan's full sister from Tsar Alexei's first wife.) During the next few years, Sophia tried to gain more power but when Peter was seventeen years old, the crisis ended, leaving Peter I as tsar and Sophia in a convent. His brother Ivan was still considered co-tzar and kept his title, but he never participated in government for the rest of his life. This paper will discuss the life and achievements of Tsar Peter I.

Peter was born on June 9, 1672 to Tsar Alexei and his second wife Nataliya Naryshkina. It was at 5:00 AM that the bell known to those who lived in Moscow as 'Great Ivan' began to toll proclaiming the birth of Peter- the first child of this union... and while the Tsar celebrated in the Kremlin, other areas of the country including the Solovetsky Monastery were in open defiance of the tsar and his new religious innovations. There is little known about his first three years of life, but it was in Peter's third year of life that his father died and his half brother Fyodor was named czar. Feodor III was frail, pious and loved learning... in short, he left the running of his government to his relatives. At the age of five, Peter was given a tutor who taught him to read from the Bible, sing, some very basic math, and some grammar and spelling- although his handwriting, grammar, and spelling remained erratic throughout his life. Showing an aptitude for 'war games', Peter also passed his days with boys of all classes organizing 'regiments' for mock battles. This would teach him many lessons of a positive nature, but also a few negatives - sometimes people died in these 'sham' battles as real military equipment and ammunition was used in them and in one of these battles at least 24 young men were killed and it was quoted in one source that one five pound rocket “took of the head of a boyar.” It was also during this time that the tsar displayed a great willingness to mix with and work with people of all classes- a principle that seemed to guide Peter throughout his life was that advancement for anyone in any field should be based on merit and not on rank or origin... which helped to promote many people of the lower classes.

Upon the death of Tsar Fyodor in 1682, Peter was proclaimed Tsar (at the age of ten years) and then later that same year after an uprising of the Streltsy and a compromise between the squabbles of the two matriarchal families, Peter was declared co- czar with his brother Ivan. His first public appearance as Tsar was at Fyodor's funeral which caused some scandal when he left half way through the service. In his youth, Peter avoided spending time in the Kremlin and he spent a lot of time in the German Quarter of Moscow- he preferred the company of foreign individuals with whom he was able to learn different occupations including stone-masonry, carpentry, horse shoeing, and how to pull teeth. He was well known for his curiosity and combined with Peter's apparently endless energy and enthusiasm for learning, the future czar learned many different tasks/occupations including those of foreign origin. It is not hard to understand his lack of comfortable feelings in the Kremlin with the political intrigue throughout his childhood as well as the violence and deaths of the Streltsy riots could certainly have formed negative impressions in a young child's mind that would have lasted his whole life. The government was run by his half sister Sophia until he was seventeen years old. (By the age of sixteen, the tsar had been able to do almost whatever he pleased and only attended court ceremony or special church services when his mother requested it of him. To please his mother whom he genuinely loved, Peter was married to Eudoxia Lopukhin in 1689- this was an unhappy marriage- clearly political in nature- and a decade later Peter had her sent to a nunnery.)

At seventeen, Sophia's concern about her security as regent (and autocrat as she had started using and signing her name with that title) and possible plots against Peter in an attempt to keep Sophia on the throne came to a head as both Sophia and Peter began to have conflicts in how they wanted the country to be run. With a possible plot of death for himself and his family hanging over his head, Peter fled to the Trinity Monastery where he stayed safe and was able to muster up his supporters - one source suggests St. Sergius monastery. Having enough supporters, including the Patriarch of the Russian orthodox church, Peter was able to force Sophia into confinement in the Novodevichii Convent and removed her most loyal supporters from high governmental positions. Even then, Peter allowed his mother and other relatives (including his uncle Leo Naryshkin) to rule until he was 22 years old. For the years between the age of seventeen and twenty two, the tsar used the time to travel and with a group of companions he traveled through the Swedish port of Riga, spent some time in Holland, then England as well as Austria- during the tours Peter would try to go incognito and went by the name of Peter Mikhailov which was not very successful because of the Tsar's unusual physical appearance and strength. This tour of continuous travel took about five years and he learned many talents and new tasks including new lifestyles, new ideas and a thorough revulsion and rejection of the 'backward and primitive elements' in Russia. His ambition was to bring the country of Russia into the modern era or as he was quoted- 'to sever the people from their former Asiatic customs and instruct them how all Christian peoples in Europe comport themselves.'

When his mother died, Tsar Peter took up the reins of his autocracy. Peter was quoted as writing in a textbook: “For learning is good and fundamental, and as it were the root, the seed, and first principle of all that is good and useful in church and state.” He had already built a ship on his own and soon he began to modernize the army and to create the navy. These modernizations were bitterly resented by the Streltsy and the Streltsy were to 'revolt' several times during his reign -they were tortured, killed and disbanded early in his reign. He was also sorry and grieved at the death of his brother and co-tzar in February 1696, but continued with running the country in very short order... and cared for Ivan's window and children throughout the rest of his life. Peter was considered a very 'secular' tsar and his court was filled with 'drink and debauchery'- his belief that the church had it's place and that place was to teach obedience was very much part of his overall dealings with the Orthodox church. (When once asked about his lifestyle, Peter I was known to have said that if he were not the ruler of Russia, he would want to be an English admiral... which says something about the lifestyle of an English admiral.) During his reign Peter fought a war with Turkey, Sweden, Estonia, Livonia and had some skirmishes with Poland as well as some of his own subjects (between the Cossacks and the Streltsy and other rebellions). He reorganized the military and emphasized that the military's interests should be in the interests of the state... and not his (the Tsar's) own needs- when he was working on his reorganization of the military, he crossed off the lines “the interests of his Tsarist majesty” as the object of military usefulness and devotion and substituted the words 'the interests of the state.' He also can be quoted from his address to the troops immediately preceding the battle of Poltava: 'Let the Russian host know that that hour has come to place the fortunes of our entire Fatherland in their hands; either to perish utterly or for Russia to be reborn in a better condition. And let them not think that they were armed and put forth for Peter, but for the state entrusted to Peter, for their kin, for the Russian people....' He also met Catherine Skavronsky in 1702 who was later to become his second wife on November 8, 1707 in a private ceremony- she had been Tsar Peter's mistress for a few years already and also had married her in a official and formal ceremony later on. His son from his first marriage (Alexei) was not considered a success and eventually the disagreements between the Tsar and his son ended with the death of Alexei of a seizure- there is no evidence that Alexei died at his father's hand although Alexei had already been sentenced to death presumably for treason against his father. In 1721, after the Treaty of Nystad was signed with Sweden, Peter I was offered the titles of “Emperor”, “Great”, and “Father of the Fatherland” by the state chancellor Count Gabriel Golovkin and in the name of the senate... and this honor was accepted by the Tsar. (One source suggests that these titles were the initiative of Bishop Thephan Prokopovich.)

One of Tsar Peter's great achievements was the building of the city of St Petersburg- named after his patron saint. The site was chosen on May 27, 1703 by the tsar and construction began almost immediately. (The site is located at the mouth of the Neva River where the river enters the Gulf of Finland.) The chosen site was, for all intents and purposes, impractical as it was described as a swamp, marshy, and prone to flooding. However, this was the site chosen and a fortress was built without delay for the towns protection. Peter then commenced to reconquer the land around it to keep the town safe as well. One important point that must be noted is that the building of St Petersburg was a great drain in resources- both physical and human. Some historians have estimated that over half a million people lost their lives in the building of the city due to poor living and working conditions as well as the diseases that come with working the marshy areas such as fevers and malaria. The financial burdens of the extra taxation fell especially hard on the peasantry and laws set to push construction along also fell hard on the most impoverished. The tsar and his family moved to St Petersburg in 1710 and it was designated as the capital of Russia in 1712.

There were many changes that happened during the reign of Peter the Great. The largest change was that the tsar challenged custom and in some ways began a cultural revolution as well as 'modernization'- in the past the tzars rarely interfered in the private lives of the constituency and if they did it was usually to reinforce customs and traditions. Another change was the firm reorganization that Peter I performed with the orthodox church which concentration all the powers of church leadership into his hands... and not those of the church- this included the creation of the Holy Synod and the decree of 1722 which required that priests disregard confidentiality in the confessional for certain government matters or concerns. Another religious change was that Peter I was fairly tolerant of religious differences; he even passed a law allowing Orthodox Christians to marry Western Christians. Another occurrence was in the calling of the zemsky sobor- these gatherings of the different class groups to discuss matters of special importance had already started to dwindle over time, but Tsar Peter abandoned the practice. He insisted on the boyars forgoing beards and wearing more Western attire and to encourage other constituents a beard tax was instituted. (One quote about this process was written by John Perry: 'Nothing but the absolute authority of the Tzar could ever have prevailed with the Russes to have parted with their beards.') He changed the military by incorporating new styles, making sure that the armies were better equipped and instituting lifelong draftees. He also created and developed a Russian Navy. He made Russia into an empire and gave Russia its first empress in his second wife Catherine. Russia under his tutelage 'invaded' Europe- diplomatically and commercially- making Russia a power to be reckoned with . The Tsar's obsessive pursuit of western knowledge led to an expansion of books in Russia- before 1700, there were around 500 books that were mostly devotional and religious works... by 1725, there were over 1300 books and most were on secular subjects. Another outcome that is steeped in irony was that in his attempts to create freedom, progress and to improve the life of his people, he further suppressed the serfs and some of his ambitions led more to slavery and oppression for them and in a word- despotism. Also, the Tsar was able to foster more trade with other nations by building more canals, roads and bridges which included the canals that completed the water passage from the Baltic sea to the Caspian sea. Lastly, the creation of the Table of Ranks allowed the Tsar to 'force' education of the noble classes and allowed people from all classes of life the option to become a noble or to change their class... it was even possible to make that hereditary. Hard work and intelligence, not birth became the key.

Peter was a man of extraordinary physical attributes. He was almost seven feet tall and quite powerful and energetic... and not afraid of physical labor. Few individuals could keep up with the occupations and energy level of the tsar. The Bishop of Burnet stated that “the providence of God... has raised up such a furious man to so absolute authority over so great a part of the world”. One source states: 'He was one of his country’s greatest statesmen, organizers, and reformers.' Peter was determined and didn’t give up readily- for example, after learning of a disastrous defeat by Sweden, the tsar remarked: 'I know very well, the Swedes will for some time beat us, but at length, we may learn to beat them.' It should also be noted that while the wars fought by Peter I were very destructive, Tsar Peter didn't see war as an end in itself and preferred to have less destruction and death. In one instance, the tsar berated a Swedish commander for his 'stubborn' defiance that had caused extra bloodshed and destruction. He was also known to be generous in victory and one example was the victory by Russia against Sweden on July 8th, 1709. Czar Peter invited the captured officers to banquet on the battlefield and even offered them a toast: ' Our teachers in the art of war'... the Swedish General Rehnskold is then said to have replied 'It is well that you have paid us for our lesson'.

He had a few difficult or negative traits that were easily seen in some situations. His savage temper and belief in his absolute power made it easy for him to overreact.... and over react he did in so many instances. One example of this would be at a banquet held soon after his return to Russia from Europe. Before a large group of people, he accused a man of selling commissions in the army and attacked him with a sword. A few people were injured, but a few minutes later Peter was cheerful and acted as if nothing had happened. During a banquet his lieutenant Mishokov told the tsar that his son Alexei was 'an idiot and [he] will undo all your [Peter's] work'- the Tsar then gave the lieutenant a blow to his head (even though the tsar himself was very much concerned about that as well.) Peter always acted as the autocrat and it was not unheard of for him to beat his high officials with a stick... to which even his closest friend was not ignored. Peter has been described as a man who could use 'bestial cruelty' to a man of selfless devotion. One source suggests that the 'very magnitude of his ambition' might have been Peter the Great's largest flaw as his ambition allowed him to not see the present costs and in the end it was the Russian people who paid the costs for his ambition... even though his ambition was to help them rise above all.

If the tsar did have one fault that contributed to his death, it was that he would not rest. In the summer of 1724 his health took a turn for the worse and Peter found if necessary to have an operation on his bladder. He continued to have difficulties and on January 27, 1725 an infection forced him to be bedridden and he was never able to leave it. In February of 1725, Peter I died at the age of 53 in St Petersburg and is believed to have died of pneumonia with his wife Catherine at his side. (other sources suggest complications of his urinary ailment.) Some of his former subjects enjoyed repeating the caption of a famous cartoon that came out after the tzar’s death: “The Mice Bury the Cat.”... in a metaphor of Peter I and his life and ambition. There is still discussion between historians about the elements of his reign and what positive and negative aspects his decisions left behind. If nothing else, Peter the great has cemented himself in our memories as a ruler that was almost 'larger than life' with an ambition and energy to match it.

The Cultural and Religious Life of Russia: 1533-1689

Religion has held an important role in the culture and politics of Russia since the early days of Kievan Rus. The earliest religious thought and practice in Russia was paganism which was quite popular with most of the population. The beginnings of Christianity in Russia are attributed to the reign of Vladimir I in 988 AD. This ruler, after looking at a few different religions, chose orthodox Christianity as his preferred 'national' religion and then encouraged and 'invited' the nobles and other citizens to join. In time, orthodox Christianity took firm hold and the spirits/ earth deities of paganism were slowly put aside. And with the support of the Russian rulers as well as the immersion of the religious beliefs and behaviors into Russian culture, it has become a little difficult sometimes to see the threads of where religion is separate from other parts of the Russian constituent's life as it had been in the past. By the reign of Ivan IV, Orthodox Christianity was the only major religion in the Russian state and territories. This paper will discuss the role that religion played in the lives of the Russian people between the years of 1533-1689 and how Western religion tried to influence the Russian orthodox religion.

One important factor that must be considered when discussing Russian religion during this time frame is the idea that emphasis was put on Moscow as the center of the 'true' Christian civilization. The fall of the Byzantine empire to the Ottomans gave Russia the unexpected opportunity to become a potential leader of the world wide orthodox community. This opportunity was taken advantage of in different ways. In 1589 and shortly after the death of Ivan IV, the orthodox church in Russia elevated its 'metropolitan'* to the title of 'patriarch' which helped to separate the Byzantine church from the Russian church... and in Russian eyes and most practical matters, the Patriarch’s word and opinion was now the most important of all the 'heads' of the differing orthodox churches. By 1533, the influence of the orthodox church... or at least monasticism was starting to wane and the government as well as the church began to hold more sway over the population. And time gave the government more ability to strengthen its powers over the church. In 1649, the law code passed by Tsar Alexei forbid sermons to be insulting to the upper classes and removed some church lands from the church and placed them in governmental control- this action was not considered acceptable to all church nobility and some members of the upper church nobility refused to sign the law code due to the perceived 'semi-secularization' of the church. By 1686, the Russian orthodox church (or the Church of the Third Rome) dominated all orthodoxy in Northern Europe. Reforms and schism within the church itself changed the way that the church was viewed by much of the population... as well as how the ritualistic behaviors of the church were performed.

Another important factor that should be discussed when examining the religion and culture of Russia during this time was the growth of foreign influences- especially in the seventeenth century. The pope of the Roman Catholic Church thought of members of the Byzantine or Orthodox church as heretics or schismatics – and had since the 'schism' of 1054. So it was not unheard of for the pope to allow or even advocate 'crusades' against the infidels- which could and would include the Orthodox Christians. This was only one factor in the many wars that graced Russian soil, but one important reason nonetheless. (In fact, around 1240 when the Mongols were invading Russian territory, Prince Daniel of Galicia (Romanovych) acknowledged the Roman church and accepted a 'papal' crown in an attempt to get help from other Roman Catholics with men and resources to fight the Mongols. His hope was in vain and no help from the other Christian church was forthcoming. Another example would be in the case of 'Pseudo' Dmitri I who was supported by the Catholic Church and the Jesuits as he had promised to become a Catholic and 'roman-ize' Russia if successful in his quest for the tzardom.) Between the years of 1533-1689, Russia fought in wars with Poland, Sweden, Denmark, Turkey, and Lithuania... as well as uprisings of the native population. Between the wars, natural disasters and other conflicts as well as the church schism, foreign influences were able to have more opportunities to influence and change the Russian culture that they collided with.

It must be noted that the Russian population and culture did have a mistrust and suspicion of foreign individuals, their religions and their unknown cultures. One prominent Scottish officer stationed in Russia is quoted as saying: 'strangers being looked upon by the best sort as scarcely Christians, and by the plebeians as mere pagans.' Another quote that furthered the sense of Russia’s superiority when it came to religion and the culture of other countries can be found in the quote by the Constantinople Patriarch’s declaration to Tsar Feodor: 'Your great Russian Tsardom, the third Rome, surpasses all in piety; you alone in all the universe are referred to as the Christian Tsar.” To try and limit influence of Westerners, their religions and their ideas, Tsar Alexei attempted to isolate 'non-orthodox foreigners' in Moscow by creating a separate place in the town for them to live in 1652- which later became known as the German Quarter. However, as the government grew stronger and the influence of the church on the population lessened, the defenses that had been built to try and protect the population from Western influences were weakened as well. Part of the 'schism' in the church itself appears to be based on what powers belongs to the church and which powers were the Tsars... a possible influence of Western spiritual thought as the church felt it should have control over all spiritual decisions and authority while the state very much disagreed.

Religion was very much an important part of the lives of all those living in the country of Russia during this time. The church was still an influencing force in the lives of the population as the leaders tried to curb drinking or drunkenness, pagan practices as well as perceived inappropriate entertainment, activities, and disrespect to the church. It seems a safe guess that the schism in the church would have also been very much on the mind of late sixteenth century constituents as laws were passed, people tortured or killed themselves to support their faith, and the resistance (or insistence) to church reforms became widespread. (One source suggests that millions of clergy and laity refused to accept the reformed Russian liturgy.) Many holidays and popular activities were based on religious holidays or celebrations. As serfdom became settled law, the church encouraged the upper classes to treat the serfs with generosity and compassion. Both the church and the Russian government concentrated heavily on the teaching of obedience and the church was also responsible for much of the education that was performed during these years for the upper classes, etc... Religion also heavily influenced art, architecture as well as literature.

Western religion influenced the Russian orthodox religion in a few ways. Western influences changed the way that Russians looks at the arts are well as architecture. Architecture and suburbs began to take on a more 'western look' in the late seventeenth century which can be seen in the ornate window decorations, mirrors and imported goods of the period. Theater was also brought to Russia and was even viewed by the czar... even though the orthodox church didn't approve of drama. Secular artists became more prominent and over time were no longer the minority when compared to numbers of icon painters. One of Tsar Alexei's chief advisers started a monastery with a free school to teach Latin, Greek, and philosophy. It must be noted that even with western influences, the orthodox church was able to dominate intellectual life even during the time of the European Renaissance and the Reformation.

In conclusion, the lives of Russians in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were very much affected by not only the Orthodox religion which permeated their culture and society, but also by the gradual influences that came from Europe and other surrounding countries. Peter I, the tzar known as the first Westernizer and modernizing czar, helped to open Russia to reforms that, unlike his predecessors, were openly encouraged to flourish and grow.... changing Russia and its culture in many ways that can still be felt today.


* A metropolitan is the name for a leader in the Orthodox church. Unlike Rome, the various eastern churches were united in faith, but not controlled by one man. A patriarch could be seen as the spiritual ruler for that area or that section of the church, whereas a metropolitan was subservient to the ruler and/or patriarch of the Byzantine church. By creating a patriarch in Russia, the church's authority was placed more squarely in the hands of Russians and not foreigners... even if they were 'faithful' foreigners. :)

The Economic and Social Life of Russia: 1533-1689

During the years of 1533- 1689, the country known as Russia changed dramatically in many ways. Some changes occurred in a form that could be described as fluid or even 'see-saw' like as borders were increased and then decreased... sometimes in the same areas and sometimes in an amoeba-like form with some sides pulling into the center and others branching out towards other lands due to war, invasion, etc... The country participated in many conflicts on different fronts with different armies and with different intentions. Large populations and cities were decimated/ destroyed and migration to safer areas continued through this time frame. One ruling dynasty ended with the son of Ivan IV, the 'Time of Troubles' began, and ended with the beginning of the Romanov dynasty. The world and other countries themselves were in a time of turmoil and rulers of many lands did not have the easiest time of it- especially Charles I of England in the 1600's. This paper will discuss a little bit of the social and economic lives of Russian constituents during this time frame as well as the expansion of Moscow. It will also discuss the intentional introduction by Tzar Alexei and his successor Peter I of European ideals to the country as well as the 'importance' he placed on introducing foreigners to the Russian way of life.

During the reign of Ivan IV, the economy suffered severely and it was only around the year 1600 that the economy was recovering from the damage caused by Ivan's wars, oprichniki, and other 'excesses'. The turmoil/civil war and foreign invasions during the 'Time of Troubles' contributed to the economic and social problems. For instance, Tsar Ivan IV' s successors continued their quest to conquer lands to the south, in spite of clear signs that this decision was causing more economic distress. (One source mentioned that when Tzar Fyodor I died, Russia's economic and social crisis was 'severe'.) When Michael Romanov was elected as czar in 1613, the city of Moscow was in such 'dilapidated' a condition that the czar was housed at the Troitsa monastery for several weeks, so that decent accommodations could be provided for him. Tsar Michael raised taxes to pay some of the nation’s debts and also to improve economic development. He also created eleven new departments of state to carry out specific tasks including a department to rebuild Moscow and a department to restore order. He also attempted to stop the southward migration of the population and completed a census or lands and population so that the new taxes could be collected efficiently. When he died, his successor tried to continue Tzar Mikhail's agenda of autocracy, order, and economic improvement.

Czar Alexei Mihailovich also began his reign raising taxes on items such as tobacco and salt which were extremely unpopular. Due to the flight/migration of peasants to safer areas as well as looking for 'freedom' from different forms of oppression, Tsar Alexei modified the laws to stop the flow of people to different areas creating de facto serfdom and making it illegal to sell yourself as a slave- effectively bringing most of the population (80%) of Russia under Muscovite domination and taxation. It is important to note that serfdom was predominately in the southern and western part of Russia where the borders needed to be protected and peasants were needed to serve the gentry who provided military service- in the north where attack was not always imminent, serfdom was less common. These laws helped to create a form of a 'caste' system in the state and it became almost impossible to move up or down the social ladder... or in this case, a better description might be a pyramid structure. He also created a few new governmental departments, most notably the 'Secrets' department which was in charge of the czar's falconry establishment, the crown estates, etc...

Urban life in Russia during this time did not look like the typical urban areas in other countries. Only the city of Moscow was a large city in comparison to other world cities- by 1689, it had a population of about 150,000-200,000 people. (To put these numbers in perspective, that would have made the city of Moscow about one-half the size of London, Paris, or Naples.) Another way to look at how other towns in the country compared to Moscow is offered by the fact that this 'large' city contained close to one-third of all urban residents in the entire country. Trade was strictly regulated by the state to give the government tight fiscal control- most taxes were levied and collected on towns. Moscow in 1591 had expanded and grown outward from the Kremlin and had become defined by the name the 'Wooden City.' As Moscow 'added' on in size due to the influx of population, different areas were built up and walled in with stone walls- you could just walk from one side of town to another without passing though many walls and different parts of Moscow had different names. Urban areas were areas of commerce as well as just plain city necessities-gathering places, etc... An attraction to urban areas- especially to Moscow- was its location and walls that helped to keep it fortified from outside attack.

Rural life revolved very much around agriculture. Rye, wheat, oats, barley, and millet were the basic crops grown and one man named Liashcheenko stated- “The agrarian order and rural economy again serve as a key to understanding of all economic and social relationships within the feudal economy and society of the Moscow state during the fifteenth to seventeenth century. The old peasant households which had in the past tended toward an abundance of resources for side income (such as fishing, forestry, etc) tended to now be living very much hand to mouth and always on the edge of bankruptcy and starvation- famines and plagues did nothing to help this already bad situation become better. Social life revolved around work, religion, and subsistence for most. Only some peasants in the north and in Siberia kept their freedom from serfdom as it was so sparsely populated.

Many choices that the Russian czars made that effected the economy also affected the social structure and life of the citizens as well. Taxes and encouragement from the government to buy vodka (due to high taxes) caused drunkenness to be quite common in Russia and was certainly one accusation or criticism of Russia's culture by foreign writers and ambassadors. A German scholar named Adam Olearius who visited Moscow a few times between 1634-1643 stated- “There is no place in the world where drunkenness is more common than in Muscovy. All, of all conditions, ecclesiastics and lay,men and women, old and young, will drink strong water at any time... Nay, the great ones are not free of this vice, as for example, the Muscovite Ambassador, sent to Charles, King of Sweden, in the year 1608, who, forgetting his quality and the affairs his master had entrusted to him with, took so much strong water the night before he was to have audience, that the next day being found dead in his bead, they were forced to carry him to his grave, instead of conducting him to his audience.” Even the impoverished peasant was known to drink when money was available and one source suggests a common quote- “The church is near but the road is icy; the tavern is far, but I will walk very carefully.” Other quotes from foreign sources describe the cold of the Russian climate as unbearable- “You could cast water into the air and it would freeze before touching the ground” and a quote from an English ambassador “[often travelers were] brought into towns sitting dead and stiff in their sleds.” However, it must be noted that not all descriptions of Russia by foreign travelers were negative. One Englishman wrote of his visit of seeing a Russian marketplace- “Your astonished sight is there arrested by a vast open square, containing the bodies of many thousand animals piled in pyramidical heaps on all sides”... it was visits like these that gave European members the revelation that frozen food could be thawed with little loss of flavor. One English painter wrote of the celebration that the Russian constituents had at the turn of the winter season- “They sing, they laugh, they wrestle, tumbling about like great bears amongst the furrows of the surrounding snow” and one British observer stated that the Russian people possessed a “national propensity to mirth.”

Bringing the knowledge of the 'West' to Russia and also educating foreigners about Russia's way of was of great importance to Tsar Alexei Mihailovich. During his reign, he established an international postal system to improve communications between his nation and the western world. In 1652, Czar Alexei assigner the foreign workers in Moscow a suburb in which they lived and other Russians learned various new or 'western' skills. It must be noted however that the czar had another reason for trying to separate the westerners from other Russian as he wanted to limit contacts between the Russian Orthodox and the 'non-Orthodox.' Tzar Alexei also encouraged entrepreneurs from other countries to come to experimental farms and factories where the foreign craftsman could reach Russian workers skills such as glass blowing and brick-making- he also encourages foreign business such as Dutch ironworks to be built and run in his country. In 1682, Tsar Peter I (the Great) came to power. Peter I encouraged the development of new industry and crafts and modern Russian industry can be traced back to this time. Some of the new developments included metal working, textiles, brick making and china manufacturing. In 1689, Russia became the first European state to sign an equal trade treaty with China. (On an interesting side note, Ukrainians ended up playing an important role in Muscovite culture and government after their 'union' with Russia as the Ukrainian people were the same religion and close ethnically to the Russian people... but were more familiar with the west and became large supporters of the reforms of Peter the Great.)

In conclusion, the economic and social lives of the Russian population were very much intertwined and dependent on each other. As the power of the czar increased, the power of the rest of the population dwindled with most of the population having no legal rights at all. With government encouragement of alcohol consumption to help improve its financial status, much of Russia's social life in many areas revolved around drink- or vodka to be precise. And over time as the economy improved, sills and culture from the 'West' were slowly integrated into Russia as well, taking on their own unique colors in the local cultures. When Peter I continued in power, his reforms and foreign policies would open the door of Russia to Europe and vice versa created more understanding... and more opportunities for trade and economic partnerships.

The First Romanov Czars: Michael and Alexei (1613-1676)

The accession of Mikhail Romanov to the Russian throne in February 1613 marked the end of the 'Time of Troubles' for the Russia country. A few ideas survived this time stronger and intact which was to affect the Russian country politically for centuries to come. The idea that only a strong monarch/tzar could keep the country from chaos was strong and seemed to many to be the only alternative to ongoing chaos. One idea was that the only stability that had been available was the Orthodox church and that was the only guarantee and unifying factor in Russia without a Tsar. There was also the idea that the person who should be in charge needed to be of the 'people' and understand the hardships that they had faced... and were facing. Last was the realization that the Tsar needed the boyar class and could not have authority without them- they would have to work together or get nowhere but trouble, death and chaos for all. The person also needed to be acceptable to the majority if not all Cossack groups as well as the boyar class. Finding someone on the Rurik hereditary line that hadn't been involved in the intrigue and choosing sides in the long civil war was that much harder. So it comes as almost no surprise that the chosen individual was young, had the appropriate heredity, and had very little political involvement over the last fifteen years. A quote from a source that caused me to laugh- “The choice (for czar) fell upon a boy, whose name might have wrung a sigh from the ghost of Boris Godunov: Michael Romanov.” I think the author was right! This paper will discuss the reigns of Tsar Mikhail I and his son Alexei I of Russia. It will discuss their goals and achievements and help us continue on our enlightening path of learning Russian history.

Mikhail Fyodorovich Romanov was born on July 12, 1596 to Feodor Nikitich Romanov and Kseniya Shestova in Moscow, Russia. Very little else is known about his childhood. It is known that both of his parents were forced by Boris Godunov to enter service in the church to keep them out of sight/mind for the 'succession'. Before taking vows and being known as Patriarch Filaret, Feodor Romanov had been a distinguished soldier, a man of diplomacy and had been the popular candidate for the throne when Feodor I passed away and Boris Godunov took over. The young Michael probably grew up in a convent with his mother at Tolvuysiy pogost and then later moved with her to Kostroma. In February 1613, he was the chosen and elected czar.... but the next step was for the new czar to be found. And found he was at his mother's side at the Ipatiev Monastery near Kostroma on March 24th. (On a side note, there is a legend about a man named Ivan Susanin who was tortured to hide the whereabouts of the young Michael Romanov and because of his faithfulness and his silence his ancestors were given one half of Derevischi village by Tsar Mikhail.... or he led a Polish army group sent to capture the czar astray and they were never heard from again. There is some debate about this.) Many sources suggest that Mikhail and his mother were not accepting at first of his new 'elevation'- only after much discussion did Michael accept the position of Czar. He approached Moscow on May 2,1613 and several weeks later he attended his coronation in the Assumption/Dormition Cathedral. He married Maria Vladimirovna Dolgorukova in 1624 and when she died four months after their marriage, Michael married Eudoxia Streshneva. Together, they produced ten children including the next Czar Alexis.

The first priority of the new Tsar in 1614 was to restore order and rid the country of the 'foreign occupators'. One source suggests that Tsar Micheal’s main goal was actually twofold- to rid Russia of the large foreign armies and put to rest the conflicts with Poland and Russians as well as deal with his country's financial problems to help solidify Michael's own position. Due to his age, he ruled closely with close consultation with the Boyar Duma and the Assembly of the Land for the first few years... and well as help by his mother's relatives that took control of governmental affairs until the return of Mikhail's father. Patriarch Filaret returned to Moscow in June of 1619 and took up the reigns of political affairs, accepting the title of Great Sovereign and ruling until his death in 1933. However, before his father's return Mikhail had many accomplishments. He had inherited a bankrupt country and he immediately borrowed money to pay the army and raised taxes. Michael was able to put down an uprising of an pretender (false Dmitri III) and his promoters which helped to cement his rule. After the necessary isolation of Russia during the civil wars of the 'Troubles', Tsar Michael looked to England and to its monarch James I for an alliance that could protect Russia from further problems with Poland- there was precedent for good relations with England as relations between the Queen of England (Elizabeth I) and Russian monarchs Ivan IV and Boris Godunov were mostly amiable. This step, along with the taxes and rebuilding the army ended parts of the Polish occupation of Russia and helped control the Swedish threat. Tsar Mikhail signed the Treaty of Stolbovo in 1617 and the Treaty of Deulino in `1618. The alliance with England was successful in its ambitions and both parties (the Tsar of Russia and the King of England) gained many of the priorities and securities that they wanted in their high stakes game of 'risk'. Throughout the last years of his rule, the czar's concentration was on colonization and fort-building in the south and in Siberia- as well as the reformation of the structure of local governments to increase the authority of the central administration. Tsar Mikhail Romanov ruled until his natural death of illness on July 12, 1645 after naming his 16 year old son Alexei as his designated heir.

Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov was born on March 19, 1629, to Tsar Mikhail and his second wife, Eudoxia Streshneva. Alexis was brought up by various wet nurses until the age of five and then his education was entrusted to two boyars names Boris Morozov and Basil Streshnev. Even though he was handed the throne at the same age as his father, he had been able to be better prepared for the challenge. He was sixteen years of age when his father died on July 13, 1645 and his coronation was held on September 28, 1645. In Russian, his nickname was 'tishaishii' which means 'most quiet one' and he was known to be a very devout and religious man. (The word 'tishaishii' can also mean 'the most meek.) Tsar Alexei relied heavily on his two tutors for advice during the early parts of his reign, but firmly stood on his own during much of his reign. He married Maria Ilynichna Miloslavskaya in January 1648 and she gave birth to thirteen children in their twenty-one years of marriage... and died a few weeks after the last childbirth. It was said that Tsar Alexei was very grief-stricken at her death, however, he did later marry again; a Nataliya Kyrillovna Naryshkina and after their marriage in February 1671, she bore him three children... including Peter, who would later be known as one of the greatest Russian rulers in history.

No one can really honestly suggest that the time frame during the rule of Tsar Alexei was not tumultuous. Events happening all over the globe confirm that statement. But Russia itself was part of and participated in some of the difficulties. In Russia during his reign, Tsar Alexis faced numerous town rebellions including defeating the Cossack group led by Stenka Razin, fought and was fairly successful territory-wise in the Russo-Swedish war of 1656, a thirteen year war with Poland which was quite successful territory-wise, as well as a permanent schism in the Orthodox church. According to the introduction to his own book on falconry, Alexis is quoted as saying that "everything must be done with good order, discipline, and exact arrangement.” One source mentions that this quote helps explain the tzar’s emphasis on centralization, obedience, and conformity. He believed that nothing could be secure or strengthened unless great care, strong consistency and hands on strong authority was used. This was not a whim that he expected others to follow alone- Tsar Alexis required the same behavior in almost all instances from himself. Alexei is also quoted as coining the phrase “a time for work, an hour for play” which is still a popular saying in Russia.

He was considered one of the most educated men of his time and he himself wrote and edited many of the important decrees and documents of his time for Russia. He was the first czar to sign laws on his own authority and to permit realistic portraits of himself as well as to actually receive personal communications as a 'person' and not as a leader. Tsar Alexei also established an international postal system to improve communication with other states in Europe. He was described in the memoirs of Lizek as a “Tsar [that] is gifted with unusual talents, has fine qualities and rare virtues... subjects love him so much and revere him.” A monument to Czar Alexei is scheduled to be completed in the city of Penza in 2013 which is the city's 350th anniversary- this city is significant as it was built on Czar Alexei orders to bolster one of the Russian empire's borders.

Tsar Alexei was a man who seems to have a broad vision and unlike some of his predecessors, didn't seem to enjoy the punishments that he felt 'forced' to order. His actions increased the territory of Russia and also helped cement the autocracy for his successors... giving them more power than he had come to the throne with. When he died, he left a fairly stable country ready to accept some new western ideas and a lasting legacy. His son Peter I would continue and build on his father's ideals and legacy creating a legend for himself and a country that would continue to last until this very day.... even if in a smaller form.