The Cultural and Religious Life of Russia: 1533-1689

Religion has held an important role in the culture and politics of Russia since the early days of Kievan Rus. The earliest religious thought and practice in Russia was paganism which was quite popular with most of the population. The beginnings of Christianity in Russia are attributed to the reign of Vladimir I in 988 AD. This ruler, after looking at a few different religions, chose orthodox Christianity as his preferred 'national' religion and then encouraged and 'invited' the nobles and other citizens to join. In time, orthodox Christianity took firm hold and the spirits/ earth deities of paganism were slowly put aside. And with the support of the Russian rulers as well as the immersion of the religious beliefs and behaviors into Russian culture, it has become a little difficult sometimes to see the threads of where religion is separate from other parts of the Russian constituent's life as it had been in the past. By the reign of Ivan IV, Orthodox Christianity was the only major religion in the Russian state and territories. This paper will discuss the role that religion played in the lives of the Russian people between the years of 1533-1689 and how Western religion tried to influence the Russian orthodox religion.

One important factor that must be considered when discussing Russian religion during this time frame is the idea that emphasis was put on Moscow as the center of the 'true' Christian civilization. The fall of the Byzantine empire to the Ottomans gave Russia the unexpected opportunity to become a potential leader of the world wide orthodox community. This opportunity was taken advantage of in different ways. In 1589 and shortly after the death of Ivan IV, the orthodox church in Russia elevated its 'metropolitan'* to the title of 'patriarch' which helped to separate the Byzantine church from the Russian church... and in Russian eyes and most practical matters, the Patriarch’s word and opinion was now the most important of all the 'heads' of the differing orthodox churches. By 1533, the influence of the orthodox church... or at least monasticism was starting to wane and the government as well as the church began to hold more sway over the population. And time gave the government more ability to strengthen its powers over the church. In 1649, the law code passed by Tsar Alexei forbid sermons to be insulting to the upper classes and removed some church lands from the church and placed them in governmental control- this action was not considered acceptable to all church nobility and some members of the upper church nobility refused to sign the law code due to the perceived 'semi-secularization' of the church. By 1686, the Russian orthodox church (or the Church of the Third Rome) dominated all orthodoxy in Northern Europe. Reforms and schism within the church itself changed the way that the church was viewed by much of the population... as well as how the ritualistic behaviors of the church were performed.

Another important factor that should be discussed when examining the religion and culture of Russia during this time was the growth of foreign influences- especially in the seventeenth century. The pope of the Roman Catholic Church thought of members of the Byzantine or Orthodox church as heretics or schismatics – and had since the 'schism' of 1054. So it was not unheard of for the pope to allow or even advocate 'crusades' against the infidels- which could and would include the Orthodox Christians. This was only one factor in the many wars that graced Russian soil, but one important reason nonetheless. (In fact, around 1240 when the Mongols were invading Russian territory, Prince Daniel of Galicia (Romanovych) acknowledged the Roman church and accepted a 'papal' crown in an attempt to get help from other Roman Catholics with men and resources to fight the Mongols. His hope was in vain and no help from the other Christian church was forthcoming. Another example would be in the case of 'Pseudo' Dmitri I who was supported by the Catholic Church and the Jesuits as he had promised to become a Catholic and 'roman-ize' Russia if successful in his quest for the tzardom.) Between the years of 1533-1689, Russia fought in wars with Poland, Sweden, Denmark, Turkey, and Lithuania... as well as uprisings of the native population. Between the wars, natural disasters and other conflicts as well as the church schism, foreign influences were able to have more opportunities to influence and change the Russian culture that they collided with.

It must be noted that the Russian population and culture did have a mistrust and suspicion of foreign individuals, their religions and their unknown cultures. One prominent Scottish officer stationed in Russia is quoted as saying: 'strangers being looked upon by the best sort as scarcely Christians, and by the plebeians as mere pagans.' Another quote that furthered the sense of Russia’s superiority when it came to religion and the culture of other countries can be found in the quote by the Constantinople Patriarch’s declaration to Tsar Feodor: 'Your great Russian Tsardom, the third Rome, surpasses all in piety; you alone in all the universe are referred to as the Christian Tsar.” To try and limit influence of Westerners, their religions and their ideas, Tsar Alexei attempted to isolate 'non-orthodox foreigners' in Moscow by creating a separate place in the town for them to live in 1652- which later became known as the German Quarter. However, as the government grew stronger and the influence of the church on the population lessened, the defenses that had been built to try and protect the population from Western influences were weakened as well. Part of the 'schism' in the church itself appears to be based on what powers belongs to the church and which powers were the Tsars... a possible influence of Western spiritual thought as the church felt it should have control over all spiritual decisions and authority while the state very much disagreed.

Religion was very much an important part of the lives of all those living in the country of Russia during this time. The church was still an influencing force in the lives of the population as the leaders tried to curb drinking or drunkenness, pagan practices as well as perceived inappropriate entertainment, activities, and disrespect to the church. It seems a safe guess that the schism in the church would have also been very much on the mind of late sixteenth century constituents as laws were passed, people tortured or killed themselves to support their faith, and the resistance (or insistence) to church reforms became widespread. (One source suggests that millions of clergy and laity refused to accept the reformed Russian liturgy.) Many holidays and popular activities were based on religious holidays or celebrations. As serfdom became settled law, the church encouraged the upper classes to treat the serfs with generosity and compassion. Both the church and the Russian government concentrated heavily on the teaching of obedience and the church was also responsible for much of the education that was performed during these years for the upper classes, etc... Religion also heavily influenced art, architecture as well as literature.

Western religion influenced the Russian orthodox religion in a few ways. Western influences changed the way that Russians looks at the arts are well as architecture. Architecture and suburbs began to take on a more 'western look' in the late seventeenth century which can be seen in the ornate window decorations, mirrors and imported goods of the period. Theater was also brought to Russia and was even viewed by the czar... even though the orthodox church didn't approve of drama. Secular artists became more prominent and over time were no longer the minority when compared to numbers of icon painters. One of Tsar Alexei's chief advisers started a monastery with a free school to teach Latin, Greek, and philosophy. It must be noted that even with western influences, the orthodox church was able to dominate intellectual life even during the time of the European Renaissance and the Reformation.

In conclusion, the lives of Russians in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were very much affected by not only the Orthodox religion which permeated their culture and society, but also by the gradual influences that came from Europe and other surrounding countries. Peter I, the tzar known as the first Westernizer and modernizing czar, helped to open Russia to reforms that, unlike his predecessors, were openly encouraged to flourish and grow.... changing Russia and its culture in many ways that can still be felt today.


* A metropolitan is the name for a leader in the Orthodox church. Unlike Rome, the various eastern churches were united in faith, but not controlled by one man. A patriarch could be seen as the spiritual ruler for that area or that section of the church, whereas a metropolitan was subservient to the ruler and/or patriarch of the Byzantine church. By creating a patriarch in Russia, the church's authority was placed more squarely in the hands of Russians and not foreigners... even if they were 'faithful' foreigners. :)

The Economic and Social Life of Russia: 1533-1689

During the years of 1533- 1689, the country known as Russia changed dramatically in many ways. Some changes occurred in a form that could be described as fluid or even 'see-saw' like as borders were increased and then decreased... sometimes in the same areas and sometimes in an amoeba-like form with some sides pulling into the center and others branching out towards other lands due to war, invasion, etc... The country participated in many conflicts on different fronts with different armies and with different intentions. Large populations and cities were decimated/ destroyed and migration to safer areas continued through this time frame. One ruling dynasty ended with the son of Ivan IV, the 'Time of Troubles' began, and ended with the beginning of the Romanov dynasty. The world and other countries themselves were in a time of turmoil and rulers of many lands did not have the easiest time of it- especially Charles I of England in the 1600's. This paper will discuss a little bit of the social and economic lives of Russian constituents during this time frame as well as the expansion of Moscow. It will also discuss the intentional introduction by Tzar Alexei and his successor Peter I of European ideals to the country as well as the 'importance' he placed on introducing foreigners to the Russian way of life.

During the reign of Ivan IV, the economy suffered severely and it was only around the year 1600 that the economy was recovering from the damage caused by Ivan's wars, oprichniki, and other 'excesses'. The turmoil/civil war and foreign invasions during the 'Time of Troubles' contributed to the economic and social problems. For instance, Tsar Ivan IV' s successors continued their quest to conquer lands to the south, in spite of clear signs that this decision was causing more economic distress. (One source mentioned that when Tzar Fyodor I died, Russia's economic and social crisis was 'severe'.) When Michael Romanov was elected as czar in 1613, the city of Moscow was in such 'dilapidated' a condition that the czar was housed at the Troitsa monastery for several weeks, so that decent accommodations could be provided for him. Tsar Michael raised taxes to pay some of the nation’s debts and also to improve economic development. He also created eleven new departments of state to carry out specific tasks including a department to rebuild Moscow and a department to restore order. He also attempted to stop the southward migration of the population and completed a census or lands and population so that the new taxes could be collected efficiently. When he died, his successor tried to continue Tzar Mikhail's agenda of autocracy, order, and economic improvement.

Czar Alexei Mihailovich also began his reign raising taxes on items such as tobacco and salt which were extremely unpopular. Due to the flight/migration of peasants to safer areas as well as looking for 'freedom' from different forms of oppression, Tsar Alexei modified the laws to stop the flow of people to different areas creating de facto serfdom and making it illegal to sell yourself as a slave- effectively bringing most of the population (80%) of Russia under Muscovite domination and taxation. It is important to note that serfdom was predominately in the southern and western part of Russia where the borders needed to be protected and peasants were needed to serve the gentry who provided military service- in the north where attack was not always imminent, serfdom was less common. These laws helped to create a form of a 'caste' system in the state and it became almost impossible to move up or down the social ladder... or in this case, a better description might be a pyramid structure. He also created a few new governmental departments, most notably the 'Secrets' department which was in charge of the czar's falconry establishment, the crown estates, etc...

Urban life in Russia during this time did not look like the typical urban areas in other countries. Only the city of Moscow was a large city in comparison to other world cities- by 1689, it had a population of about 150,000-200,000 people. (To put these numbers in perspective, that would have made the city of Moscow about one-half the size of London, Paris, or Naples.) Another way to look at how other towns in the country compared to Moscow is offered by the fact that this 'large' city contained close to one-third of all urban residents in the entire country. Trade was strictly regulated by the state to give the government tight fiscal control- most taxes were levied and collected on towns. Moscow in 1591 had expanded and grown outward from the Kremlin and had become defined by the name the 'Wooden City.' As Moscow 'added' on in size due to the influx of population, different areas were built up and walled in with stone walls- you could just walk from one side of town to another without passing though many walls and different parts of Moscow had different names. Urban areas were areas of commerce as well as just plain city necessities-gathering places, etc... An attraction to urban areas- especially to Moscow- was its location and walls that helped to keep it fortified from outside attack.

Rural life revolved very much around agriculture. Rye, wheat, oats, barley, and millet were the basic crops grown and one man named Liashcheenko stated- “The agrarian order and rural economy again serve as a key to understanding of all economic and social relationships within the feudal economy and society of the Moscow state during the fifteenth to seventeenth century. The old peasant households which had in the past tended toward an abundance of resources for side income (such as fishing, forestry, etc) tended to now be living very much hand to mouth and always on the edge of bankruptcy and starvation- famines and plagues did nothing to help this already bad situation become better. Social life revolved around work, religion, and subsistence for most. Only some peasants in the north and in Siberia kept their freedom from serfdom as it was so sparsely populated.

Many choices that the Russian czars made that effected the economy also affected the social structure and life of the citizens as well. Taxes and encouragement from the government to buy vodka (due to high taxes) caused drunkenness to be quite common in Russia and was certainly one accusation or criticism of Russia's culture by foreign writers and ambassadors. A German scholar named Adam Olearius who visited Moscow a few times between 1634-1643 stated- “There is no place in the world where drunkenness is more common than in Muscovy. All, of all conditions, ecclesiastics and lay,men and women, old and young, will drink strong water at any time... Nay, the great ones are not free of this vice, as for example, the Muscovite Ambassador, sent to Charles, King of Sweden, in the year 1608, who, forgetting his quality and the affairs his master had entrusted to him with, took so much strong water the night before he was to have audience, that the next day being found dead in his bead, they were forced to carry him to his grave, instead of conducting him to his audience.” Even the impoverished peasant was known to drink when money was available and one source suggests a common quote- “The church is near but the road is icy; the tavern is far, but I will walk very carefully.” Other quotes from foreign sources describe the cold of the Russian climate as unbearable- “You could cast water into the air and it would freeze before touching the ground” and a quote from an English ambassador “[often travelers were] brought into towns sitting dead and stiff in their sleds.” However, it must be noted that not all descriptions of Russia by foreign travelers were negative. One Englishman wrote of his visit of seeing a Russian marketplace- “Your astonished sight is there arrested by a vast open square, containing the bodies of many thousand animals piled in pyramidical heaps on all sides”... it was visits like these that gave European members the revelation that frozen food could be thawed with little loss of flavor. One English painter wrote of the celebration that the Russian constituents had at the turn of the winter season- “They sing, they laugh, they wrestle, tumbling about like great bears amongst the furrows of the surrounding snow” and one British observer stated that the Russian people possessed a “national propensity to mirth.”

Bringing the knowledge of the 'West' to Russia and also educating foreigners about Russia's way of was of great importance to Tsar Alexei Mihailovich. During his reign, he established an international postal system to improve communications between his nation and the western world. In 1652, Czar Alexei assigner the foreign workers in Moscow a suburb in which they lived and other Russians learned various new or 'western' skills. It must be noted however that the czar had another reason for trying to separate the westerners from other Russian as he wanted to limit contacts between the Russian Orthodox and the 'non-Orthodox.' Tzar Alexei also encouraged entrepreneurs from other countries to come to experimental farms and factories where the foreign craftsman could reach Russian workers skills such as glass blowing and brick-making- he also encourages foreign business such as Dutch ironworks to be built and run in his country. In 1682, Tsar Peter I (the Great) came to power. Peter I encouraged the development of new industry and crafts and modern Russian industry can be traced back to this time. Some of the new developments included metal working, textiles, brick making and china manufacturing. In 1689, Russia became the first European state to sign an equal trade treaty with China. (On an interesting side note, Ukrainians ended up playing an important role in Muscovite culture and government after their 'union' with Russia as the Ukrainian people were the same religion and close ethnically to the Russian people... but were more familiar with the west and became large supporters of the reforms of Peter the Great.)

In conclusion, the economic and social lives of the Russian population were very much intertwined and dependent on each other. As the power of the czar increased, the power of the rest of the population dwindled with most of the population having no legal rights at all. With government encouragement of alcohol consumption to help improve its financial status, much of Russia's social life in many areas revolved around drink- or vodka to be precise. And over time as the economy improved, sills and culture from the 'West' were slowly integrated into Russia as well, taking on their own unique colors in the local cultures. When Peter I continued in power, his reforms and foreign policies would open the door of Russia to Europe and vice versa created more understanding... and more opportunities for trade and economic partnerships.

The 'Time of Troubles': The Last of the Rurik Rulers, Civil War, and the Beginnings of the Romanov Dynasty

Upon the death of Ivan IV, his son Fedor took the throne. Fedor ruled from the years 1584-1598 although it must be said that Fedor did not truly weld the power behind the throne... even if he was sitting in it. And upon his death, Russia was to have about 15 years of dynastic strife as well as social and national struggles. This period of time is known to historians by the name 'The Time of Troubles'. This paper will attempt to discuss three particular subjects. What was the 'Time of Troubles' and its significance. What were the particular struggles of the time- dynastically, socially, and nationally... and how did these struggles overlap or remain separate from each other? Lastly, what part did the Cossacks play in all of these struggles, what role did they have in Russian history, and what eventually brought the country of Russia into national chaos during this time.

While the 'Times of Troubles' didn't officially begin until the year of 1598, it's path was born in the last years of the reign of Ivan IV. The last years of his reign were filled with the consequences of his grief, paranoia, his temper and mental illness. During that time frame, Russia began to have many difficulties. The Livonian War had depleted the state of many resources, both financial and human. Ivan's oprichnina, while attempting to snuff out treason, succeeded in terrorizing the country and killing thousands of innocent people of all classes. Both the war and the 'terror squad' helped to spread destabilization and impoverishment around the country and the rising demands on the peasant class caused many peasants to flee from the oppressive demands placed against them by migrating south. Ivan, in a fit of temper killed his principle heir to the throne and then, in his own grief, died soon after. This left the throne to the next oldest son Fedor- who has been described by many sources as unfit, weak-witted, etc... Another legacy from Ivan IV to his son was the threat to Russian security by the Crimean Tartars, Poland, and Sweden.

Fedor Ivanovich was born in Moscow on May 31, 1557 to Ivan IV and Anastasia Romanovna. He was often referred to as Fedor 'the Bell-ringer' because of his frequent attendance at church services, his strong faith and his inclination to travel throughout the land and ring the bells in the churches. He was married to Irina (Alexandra) Feodorovna Godunova in 1580 and on May 31, 1584, (after the death of his father) Fedor was crowned Tzar and Autocrat of all Russia at Assumption Cathedral. Ivan IV, knowing that Fedor did have 'problems' such as mental retardation arraigned in his will for Fedor to have two guardians to act as regents for him. These two guardians became the real power behind the throne and one of them was Boris Godunov. Boris Godunov was the brother of Fedor's wife and had found great favor with Fedor's father. Czar Fedor spent much of his waking hours in monotonous prayer far removed from the understanding of the Russian state reality. During his reign, the Church of Muscovy gained a special status of Patriarchate of Moscow- a title that gave the assumption of imperial status to the church and brought the religious rule and political rule of Russia even closer. So, as the power behind the throne, Boris Godunov 'ruled' until the 1598.

In 1598 Fedor died without an obvious heir, ending the Rubik Dynasty. He was buried at the Archangel Cathedral in Kremlin. During his reign, he did not produce an heir (and did not appoint one) and Ivan's last son Dmitry had been murdered/killed- either his throat was slit or he was stabbed in the throat. (It must be noted that some suspicion was placed on Boris Godunov in this death... even though the official investigators appointed by Godunov reported that Dmitri had been playing with a knife when he had suffered an epileptic seizure and then died.) After the death of Feodor, Boris was formally 'elected' to the position of Tzar on February 17, 1598 by a council of about 600 deputies drawn from the roles of upper clergy, the boyar duma, and representatives of the service nobility. Some comments from England's ambassador who was sent to the Court of Fedor show some of the cynicism and trouble of the time. Sir Giles Fletcher is quoted as saying: “The state and form of government is plain tyrannical... You shall seldom see a Ruse a traveler, except he be with some Ambassador... They are kept from traveling, so they may learn nothing nor see the fashions of other countries...It may be doubted whither is greater- the cruelty or the intemperancy that is used in this country.” Boris was to rule/reign as Tzar until his death after a lengthy illness and/or stroke in April 1605.

The easiest way to describe what the Cossacks were is to describe them as groups of lawless frontiersman or 'migrant workers'. The ranks of these groups were filled with peasants, runaway slaves, criminals, Tartars, and sometimes even a nobleman who was embittered towards the Autocrat and/or the establishment. The Cossacks survived mostly by hunting, fishing, farming... and or course piracy/brigandage. The Cossacks were also independent of loyalties to others other than themselves and were a very democratic institution; they elected their own leaders by popular vote- called hetmans or atamans. These groups had started to develop around the time of Ivan IV in the lands that had recently been conquered back from the Tartar-Mongols. (There is some thought/ sources that suggest groups of cossacks existed earlier than this time frame.) These groups gained some power and influence (or at the least were certainly not persecuted) under the reign of Ivan IV and both the czar and the these groups sometimes worked together for their common good... with Ivan using the cossacks sometimes as auxiliaries to his army, sometimes as paid members of the oprichnina, etc... Ivan IV was also quoted in 1549 in a response to a request of the Turkish Sultan to control the cossacks- 'The Cossacks of the Don are not my subjects, and they go to war or live in peace without my knowledge.' It must be stressed however, that while in some instances the Cossacks were quite willing to have an amiable relationship with the government or the czar, in others they were more than happy to defy the laws/czar- they had no loyalty or ties to anyone but to their own group members. The cossacks were known for their horsemanship and they managed to keep most of their autonomy until Russia expanded in the 17th and 18th centuries.

The role that the Cossacks played in the development of the history of Russia was varied. One group of Cossacks that were previously mentioned (the Don Cossacks) allied themselves with the Tsars and together systematically conquered and colonized lands to secure the borders of the Volga and all of Siberia. In one example, the Cossacks who lived in the southern frontier took advantage of a foreign war between Turkey and Persia and seized the fortress of Azov in 1637- when they were unable to defend it over a long period of time, communication was made with the Tzar and the fort was abandoned on the tzar’s instructions. In some areas, the differing groups of cossacks created a buffer from invasion from other countries along the Russian borders. Members of Cossack groups also served as guides for many expeditions that were arraigned by civil or government/military groups such as surveyors, traders, explorers, etc... Cossack groups also were involved in political uprisings in Russia and were military supporters of different pretenders to the Russian throne during the Time of Troubles- in fact, the main force supporting one pretender (Pseudo Dmitri I) was the Cossacks.

In 1598, Boris Godunov was elected czar and the 'Time of Troubles' officially began. For the next eight years, there was a dynastic struggle. During this time frame, the country had widespread discontent, invasions from two different countries and various tzars of dubious validity. Boris Godunov was elected Tsar by the Assembly of the Land, but Boris had troubles from the beginning with the boyar class- many refused to grant him unlimited authority because Godunov had no hereditary claim to the throne. However, none of the boyar class could unite with each other around an alternative candidate. After Godunov was crowned, he immediately set out to make sure he didn't have problems with popular rivals; Romanov relatives were banished or sent to monasteries and other boyars were simply purged. During the first few years of his reign, Boris Godunov was quite popular and he did his best to bring about educational and social reforms, including importing foreign teachers, sending young Russians abroad to be educated and even allowed for the building of some protestant churches. However, his reign and the years after his death were filled with power struggles. Godunov was quite paranoid over his position of power and assumed (quite rightly) that others would try to take it from him. He found that his reign was marked not only by national disasters such as severe famine that killed as much as 1/3 of the population, but also invasions from both Sweden and Poland. Rumors began to circulate that the late prince Dmitri was not actually dead and the final years of Godunov's reign were spent fighting not only the other social problems of plague and famine, but the pretender Pseudo Dmitri. After the death of Boris Godunov in April 1605, the dynastic chaos and civil war began in earnest. Feodor II (the son of Boris Godunov was crowned Tsar... and murdered three weeks later. The next in charge was False Dmitri I was then crowned, but reigned only a year before conspiracies against him by a rurikid prince Vasily Shuisky who then murdered the False Dmitri and seized power. Soon after this power grab, a new conspiracy grew up around another imposter calling himself 'Dmitri' entered the fray... and False Dmitri II was born. At this time a second occupation from Poland-Lithuania began after an invasion. And, another pretender Tsarevich Peter, arrived on the scene and had to be dealt with as well. All of the above mentioned pretenders had large armies-either from foreign forces who were willing to help, Cossacks, disgruntled boyars... and some mixtures of all of the above. In all, about twelve pretenders vied for the Russian throne and brought the chaos of civil war with them during their struggle as well as the forces of foreign powers.

The struggles for independence from foreign occupation and the long civil war brought about national chaos to Russia. No area of Russia was unmolested by occupying forces or civil war, natural disasters such as plague and famine, and the struggles of the nearly dozen different pretenders to the throne were felt across all areas of Russia. When Tsar Vasily was forced to abdicate his throne by Filaret Romanov, Russia was ruled by a council of seven boyars for three years until the year 1613 when the council selected Mikhail Romanov as Tsar. This was possible because the boyar finally were able to work together for compromise, the Cossacks supported the candidate, and Mikhail Romanov was not seen as 'power grabbing' like some of the other candidates were. He ruled from February 1613 to 1645, bringing the country of Russia back to stability- expelling the Poles/Swedes from Moscow and the country, bringing Russia back to economic recovery/stability and the beginning of three centuries of Romanov rule.